Wednesday 23 March 2011

EFFECTS OF CABLE TELEVISION ON
WOMEN IN PAKISTAN: A COMPARATIVE
STUDY OF HEAVY AND LIGHT VIEWERS IN
LAHORE
A THESIS SUBMITTED TO
LAHORE COLLEGE FOR WOMEN UNIVERSITY
IN FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS
FOR THE DEGREE OF
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN
MASS COMMUNICATION
ANJUM ZIA
DEPARTMENT OF MASS COMMUNICATION
LAHORE COLLEGE FOR WOMEN UNIVERSITY,
LAHORE, PAKISTAN
2007
To
My Beloved Father
G. D. ZIA
I’m here just because of his blissful love, always showered on me and his
continuous encouragement at every step of my life, he taught me to pay
respect to humanity and to love all.
DECLARATION
I, Anjum Zia, hereby declare that the matter printed in this thesis is my original work and
has been carried out under the supervision of Prof. Dr. Mughees-ud-Din, Director
Institute of Communication Studies, University of the Punjab, Lahore. To the best of my
knowledge, this thesis does not contain any material that has been submitted for the
award of any other degree in any other university, neither does this thesis contain any
material published or written previously by any other person, except in the text for which
due references are given.
Anjum Zia
CERTIFICATE
It is hereby certified that the thesis entitled “Effects of Cable Television on Women in
Pakistan: A Comparative Study of Heavy and Light Viewers in Lahore” is based on
original work carried out by Anjum Zia and that has not been previously presented for the
higher degree. Anjum Zia has done her work under my direct supervision. She has
fulfilled all the requirements and is qualified to submit the accompanying thesis according
to the prescribed format for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Mass Communication.
Professor Dr. Mughees-ud-Din
Supervisor
EFFECTS OF CABLE TELEVISION ON
WOMEN IN PAKISTAN: A COMPARATIVE
STUDY OF HEAVY AND LIGHT VIEWERS
IN LAHORE
DEPARTMENT OF MASS COMMUNICATION
LAHORE COLLEGE FOR WOMEN UNIVERSITY
LAHORE, PAKISTAN
2007
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I thank Allah Almighty for giving me strength and the opportunity to complete this
research despite my arduous office work, and continuous personal obligations. Several
times during the study my will to complete it broke. But every time I lost heart,
something pushed me up from within. And this was nothing but the blessings of Allah.
I was fortunate to have worthy Dr Mughees-ud-Din, Director, Institute of
Communication Studies, University of Punjab, Lahore, as my supervisor. Dr Mughees is
known the world over for his enriched knowledge of the subject that had inculcated in me
a constant, forbearing and perfect guidance.
Simply speaking this study has only been completed owing to his guidance based
on his global exposure to the mass communication studies. Had he not been there, I may
not have even a slightest idea of what a research for PhD is about. I am greatly indebted
to you sir for guiding me through.
I profoundly thank Prof Dr Bushra Mateen, Vice-chancellor, Lahore College for
Women University, Lahore, the light under which I dared to think of conducting the
research, and struggled to complete it. Her valuable help and gracious cooperation
instilled in me the spirit to fight the odds that were numerous. I humbly thank you madam
for affording an opportunity to aspire for the highest academic degree through this study.
I am also extremely grateful to Miss Shaista Vine, Registrar LCWU, for her
patronage and affection that always serve as a shelter for me. Prof. Dr Kousar J. Cheema,
Director, Research and Ph.D, LCWU extend an endless help, which I took as much as I
could without fear of any reluctance. I am also grateful to Dr. Farhat Saleemi, Dean of
Management Sciences and Mrs. Riffat Saqlain, Dean of Social Sciences, LCWU, for their
support and encouragement.
I acknowledge Dr Muhammad Anwer, former Chairman, Department of
Sociology, University of the Punjab, Lahore for his advice, constructive comments and
support. His kind involvement gave me the knowledge that will continue to benefit me all
my life. I thank him for the kindness towards me.
I am also obliged and deeply indebted to senior journalist Intikhab Hanif (My
MA. Fellow) for sparing much of his valuable time for me. His bright ideas based on his
visits to media houses and schools of journalism in the USA and Japan, and his rich
experience proved an invaluable asset for shaping up my mind and completing this
research. His biggest support came at the time of writing this thesis, and the hours of
editing are endless. I am grateful to him for his kindness.
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Those who supported me are numerous and I cannot mention them here for
constraints of space. But it would be an injustice to miss Prof. Shahid Habib, renowned
editor and reviewer of books and films, Ahmed Nadeem, (a family friend), Dr. Syed
Abdul Siraj, Chairman, Department of Mass Communication, Allama Iqbal Open
University, Islamabad, Idrees Mohammad, Naib Nazam, Lahore, Farooq Ahmed (My M.
Phil fellow), Sara Ali Khan, lecturer, IBIT, PU, the young girls who worked as
interviewers (Fatima, Sharif, Dur e Ajum, Sonia Saleem, Mariam Pervaiz , Nadia and
Rabia Khan), Waleed Saqib, Pakistan Poverty Alleviation Fund (PPAF), Mehnaz
(Department of Statistics, LCWU), my colleagues at Department of Mass
Communication, LCWU, Manzar, Aftab and Shahid, LCWU, Mohammad Shafiq, daily
‘The News’ Khuram and Ibrar from PEMRA etc.
Lastly, I am also thankful to my mother in law, Mazhar, my brother in law and
Ayesha, sister in law for the love and support at home which helped me to concentrate on
my work. I warmly thank my mother, Shams, my brother, Aisha, my sister, Hamza, my
nephew, Sehrish, my niece, Shuja, my cousin.
The words would be short in their meanings to explain the discomfort caused to
my husband Munzir Elahi as well as the emotional pain which both my children Zain and
Zeerak went through during the course of this study. I deeply regret however without
their support this research would not be what it is now. My extreme thanks for their
unflinching support.
Anjum Zia
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ABSTRACT
This study investigates the “effects of cable television on the life patterns of women in
Lahore, Pakistan” through survey using interviews’ schedule as a tool of data collection.
It targeted 432 women aged 18-40 years and viewing cable television for a minimum two
years. The study recorded the respondent’s consumption patterns, level of viewing,
preferred channels and programs, favorite watching time, control over remote and
restrictions on viewing. It crossed checked the above factors with the level of viewing
alongwith demographic characteristics of the respondents.
The major hypothesis studied was “greater the exposure to cable television greater
the impact on the lives of women.” The sub-hypothesis included ‘heavy viewers have
greater effect on their activities, family and social interaction patterns, cultural practices,
domestic and personal expenditure, and they are more influenced by the television
characters especially depicting western and urban Indian women than the moderate and
light viewers. The data was analyzed through univariate and bivariate statistical
procedures and the results are presented in two categories: i.e. general and major findings
of hypothesis testing.
The general findings revealed that the majority of respondents were aged 31 to 40
years, belonged to the middle and upper middle class, were graduates but unemployed,
and were heavy viewers. Majority respondents had cable connection for the last two
years, indicating increasing popularity of cable television in Lahore, also making it the
main source of entertainment. There is no link between demographic characteristics and
consumption patterns. However, the respondents complained that men had more rights to
watch cable television than women.
The statistical test chi-square was applied for testing the hypothesis, confirming
that ‘greater the exposure to cable television greater the effect on the lives of women’. It
confirmed that heavy viewing affected household and other activities of the women like
newspaper reading, going to cinema, the meals cooking and serving schedule, their
domestic or personal expenditure and interaction with friends or and relatives. They were
prone to accepting the role, culture and lifestyle of western and Indian women watched on
the cable channels. The study also identified a few areas for future researchers and made
recommendations towards their improvement.
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ACRONYMS / ABBREVIATIONS
AJK TV Azad Jammu Kashmir Television
ABCTV Australian Broadcasting Commission Television
CNN Cable News Network
CATV Community Antenna Television).
CD Channels Compact Disk Channels
DD Door Darshan (Indian Television)
DTH Direct To Home
LMDS Local Multipoint Distribution Service
LH Category Loop-Line Holder Category
MATV Master Antenna Television
MMDS Multi-Channel Multipoint Distribution System
NICT New Information/Communication Technologies
NEC Nippon Electrical Company
NWFP North Wrest Frontier Province (one of the province f
Pakistan)
PBC Pakistan Broadcasting Corporation
PTA Pakistan Telecommunication Authority
PEMRA Pakistan Electronic Media Regulatory Authority.
PTV Pakistan Television Corporation
STN Shalimar Television Network
SPSS Statistical Package for the Social Science
UNESCO United Nation Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization.
VCTC Viewer Controlled Cable Television
VTR Video Tape Recorder
v
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Acknowledgement i
Abstract iii
Abbreviations iv
Table of Contents v
List of Tables viii
List of Figures xi
List of Appendices xii
Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Statement of Problem 2
1.2 Objectives 2
1.3 Hypothesis 3
1.4 Rationale 4
1.5 Brief History of Cable Television 9
1.6 World History of Cable Television 9
1.7 Development of Television in Pakistan 11
1.8 Induction of Private Sector in Broadcast Media 13
1.9 Cable Television Network in Pakistan 13
1.10 Cable Television licenses 14
1.11 Formation of Pakistan Media Regulatory Authority 16
1.12 Private Sector in Broadcast Media 22
1.13 Government and Private Television Channels in Pakistan 25
1.14 International Channels Viewed in Pakistan 27
1.15 MMDS and LMDS 28
1.16 Situation Analysis 28
Chapter 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 31
2.1 International Studies on Television/Cable Television 31
2.2 National Studies on Televisions/Cable Television 43
2.3 Studies on Women 48
Chapter 3 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 51
3.1 Uses and Gratification 52
3.2 Cultivation Theory 55
vi
3.3 Social Learning Theory 58
Chapter 4 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
(Part I) Hypothesis and Operationalisation of
the Concepts 61
4.1. Major Hypothesis 61
4.2 Variables of the Study 62
4.3 Conceptualization 63
Chapter 4 (Part II) Research Design 73
4.4 Survey 73
4.5 Sampling Method 73
4.6 Data Collection 77
4.7 Data Processing 78
4.8 Application of Statistical Test 82
Chapter 5 DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION
(Part-I) Data Analysis-General Findings 84
5.1 Cable Television Viewing Patterns of Women 84
5.2 Demographic Characteristics of the Respondents 85
5.3 Duration of Having Cable Television Connection 86
5.4 Level of Viewing 87
5.5 Duration of Cable Connection by Level of Viewing 88
5.6 Demography and Level of Viewing 89
5.7 Purpose of Watching Cable Television 93
5.8 Preferences for Channels 96
5.9 Respondents Preferred Programmes 98
5.10 Preference of Watching Television 99
5.11 Remote Control 100
5.12 Favourite Time of Watching Cable Television 101
5.13 Restriction of Watching Cable Television 103
5.14 Women Rights to watch Cable Television 105
5.15 Recreation 106
5.16 Hurdle in Domestic and other Activities 106
5.17 Affected Activities of Respondents 107
vii
5.18 Interaction Patterns 109
5.19 Appearance and Style 111
5.20 Cultural Practices 111
5.21 Personal and Household Expenditure 115
5.22 Role of Pakistani Women 115
Chapter 5 (PART-II) BIVARIATE ANALYSIS 117
5.23 Hypothesis Testing: Exposure and Effect Association 117
5.24 Changes in Lifestyle 118
5.25 Hypothesis Testing – Results 118
5.26 Major Hypothesis 118
Chapter 5 (PART III) DISCUSSION OF RESULTS 127
5.27 General Findings of the Study 129
5.28 Major Findings of Hypothesis Testing Related to the
Dependent Variables 141
Chapter 6 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 158
6.1 Recommendations 169
6.2 Recommendations for Future Research 171
References 173
Appendices xiii
viii
LIST OF TABLES
Table Title Page
1.1 Licenses Issued to Cable Operators from June 2000 to Dec. 2001 by PTA 15
1.2 Licenses Issued to Cable Operators till 2006 by PEMRA 18
1.3 Number of Cable Television Subscribers in the Country 19
1.4 Technology and Connection Charges 20
1.5 Television Viewership by Household Income 20
1.6 The PEMRA License Holder Private Channels 24
4.2 Viewers Category by Hours of Viewing 64
4.3 Sampling Dynamics 76
4.4 Towns and No. of Union Councils 76
4.5 Opinion and Respective Values 78
5.A Demographic Characteristics of the Respondents 86
5.1 Distribution of Respondents According to Duration of Having Cable
Connection xii
5.2 Distribution of Respondents by Level of Viewing xii
5.3 Distribution of Respondents According to Duration of Cable Connection
and Level of Viewing 88
5.4 Distribution of Respondents by their Age and Level of Viewing 89
5.5 Distribution of Respondents by their Education and Level of Viewing 90
5.6 Distribution of Respondents by their Profession and Level of Viewing 90
5.7 Distribution of Respondents by their Residing Town and Level of
Viewing 91
5.8 Distribution of Respondents by their Income and Level of Viewing 92
5.9 Distribution of Respondents by Marital Status and Level of Viewing 93
5.10 Purpose of Watching Cable Television 94
5.11 Purpose of Watching Cable Television Level of Viewing 95
5.12 Preferences for Channels xiii
5.13 Channel Preferences and Level of Viewing 97
5.14 Respondents Preferred Programmes xiii
5.15 Respondents’ Preferred Programmes and Level of Viewing 99
5.16 Preference of Watching Television xiv
5.17 Preference of Watching Cable Television and Level of Viewing 100
5.18 Remote Control xiv
ix
5.19 Remote Control and Level of Viewing 101
5.20 Favourite Time of Watching Cable Television xiv
5.21 Favorite Time of Watching Cable Television and Level of Viewing 102
5.22 Restriction of Watching Cable Television 104
5.23 Restricted Cable Television Channels, Programmes and Time for Men 105
5.24 Women’s Right to Watch Cable Television xv
5.25 Recreation xv
5.26 Hurdle in Domestic and Other Activities xv
5.27 Hurdles in Domestic and Other Activities and Level of Viewing 107
5.28 Affected Activities of Respondents xvi
5.29 Domestic Activities and Level of Viewing 108
5.30 Interaction Pattern xvii
5.31 Interaction with Husband and Children 110
5.32 Appearance and Style xviii
5.33 Cultural Practices (Food) xix
5.34 Cultural Practices (Dress) xx
5.35 Cultural Practices (Language) xxi
5.36 Cultural Practices (Traditions) xxii
5.37 Cultural Practices (Religion) xxii
5.38 Personal and Household Expenditure xxiii
5.39 Role of Pakistani Women in Society xxiv
5.40 Chi-Square Test for Association: Exposure and Disturbance in Domestic
and other Activities. 119
5.41 Level of Disturbance in Domestic and Other Activities by Level of
Viewing 119
5.42 Chi-Square Test for Association: Exposure and Effect on Husband and
Wife Interaction 120
5.43 Level of Interaction of Husband and Wife by Level of Viewing 121
5.44 Chi-Square Test for Association: Exposure and Effect on Mother and
Child Interaction 121
5.45 Level of Mother-Child Interaction by Level of Viewing 121
5.46 Chi-Square Test for Association: Exposure and Effect on Social
Interaction 122
5.47 Level of Viewing by Level of Social Interaction 122
5.48 Chi-Square Test for Association: Exposure and Effect on Appearance and 123
x
Style
5.49 Change in Appearance and Style by Level of Viewing. 123
5.50 Chi-Square Test for Association: Exposure and Effect on Cultural
Practices 124
5.51 Level of Cultural Practices by Level of Viewing 124
5.52 Chi-Square Test for Association: Exposure and Effect on Personal and
Domestic Expenditure 125
5.53 Level of Personal and Domestic Expenditure by Level of Viewing 125
5.54 Chi Square Test for Exposure and Effect on Social Role of Pakistani
Women. 126
5.55 Level of Change in Social Role of Pakistani Women by Level of Viewing 126
xi
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Title Page
3.1 Model of Cultivation Theory 56
5.1 Duration of Having Cable Connection 87
5.2 Level of Viewing 87
5.3 Purpose of Watching Cable Television 94
5.4 Preferences for Channels 96
5.5 Respondents Preferred Programmes 98
5.6 Preference of Watching Television 99
5.7 Remote Control 100
5.8 Favorite Time of Watching Cable Television 102
5.9 Women Right to Watch Cable Television 105
5.10 Recreation 106
5.11 Hurdle in Domestic and Other Activities 106
5.12A Domestic and Other Activities and Level of Viewing 109
5.13 Interaction Patterns 110
5.14 Appearance and Lifestyle 111
5.15 Culture Practices (Food) 112
5.16 Cultural Practices (Dress) 113
5.17 Cultural Practices (Language) 113
5.18 Cultural Practices (Traditions) 114
5.19 Cultural Practices (Religion) 114
5.20 Personal and Household Expenditure 115
5.21 Role of Pakistani Women 116
5.22 Changes in Lifestyle 118
xii
LIST OF APPENDICES
Appendix Title Page
I Tables xiii
II Profile of Lahore xxvi
III Map of City District Lahore xxxiii
IV The Kish Grid xxxiv
V Details of Union Councils xxxvi
VI Questionnaire in English and Urdu xlviii
1
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
The apprehensions of media communication, as well as evidence for its effects, are as old
as the history of the subject itself. People have always wondered how media messages are
affecting them by bringing about an imperceptible change in their culture, values and
behavioural patterns. They have always been concerned for the negative influence of a
particular message or message system and have been curious about the potential prosocial
effects of others. Wimmer (1993) has mentioned that the concern over the social
impact of mediated messages was evident as far back as the 1920s when many critics
charged that the motion pictures had a negative influence on children. The study of the
anti-social effects of viewing television and motion picture is one of the intensely
researched areas of mass media. The impact of pro-social content is a newer area and
grew out of recognition that the same principles underlining the learning of anti-social
activities ought to apply to more positive behaviour.
Keeping in view the above-cited concern, this study analyses the “Effects of cable
television in Pakistan. It is a comprehensive study of effects on women in Lahore,
Pakistan and provides results by comparing life patterns of heavy, moderate and
light viewers.”
In 2003, this researcher had conducted an M. Phil study on cable television titled
“Cable Television Network in Pakistan: Introduction, Development, Prospects and
Dilemmas.” The outcome of the study (M. Phil) has now been used in this research,
leading to the effects of cable television.
Zia (2003) quotes “In Pakistan, cable television network was initiated in Karachi
in early 1980s and by 1998 was introduced in almost all the big cities of the country but
functioned without rules and regulations. The year 2000 witnessed a mushroom growth of
cable television network all over Pakistan after the government legalized cable television
network”. According to Aziz (2003) in 2002 almost four million households were
enjoying its services in the country.
Cable television viewership is no more restricted to the upper-middle class only;
with the availability of low-priced television and cable connection, it has become a
common household facility for the lower class as well. Viewers have access to a variety
of channels from local to foreign, which provide them an opportunity to watch all types of
programmes. Zia (2003) quotes, “The reasons for this rapid growth of cable television
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included easy access, low cost, access to satellite channels and a huge television viewership
interested in entertainment only”.
According to Pakistan Electronic Media Regulatory Authority (PEMRA) regional
office, Punjab, the subscription of cable television in Lahore has increased from 0.2
million in 2003 to 0.35 million in 2006. Cable television subscription to 0.35 million
households in Lahore increases the chances of its effect/influence on the viewers as
findings of a pilot study with 1200 sample size, conducted by the researcher showed that
majority of them (60 percent) are spending 2-3 hours daily to watch cable television.
1.1 Statement of Problem
Many research studies have been conducted to observe the impact of television on
viewers, particularly on their behaviour (Bukhari., 2002; Malik, M., 2001; Naseem, A.
2001). Findings of previous research had made the researcher to conclude that television
does have some direct or indirect effects on viewers but no study has been carried out in
Lahore, Pakistan, regarding effects of cable television prior to this study. With the
popularity of foreign television channels, fears have been expressed that lifestyles of
viewers may be affected. As Schiller (1976) confirms ‘importing programmes is
importing lifestyles and exposure to foreign television programmes may transform the
values of youth.’ Concerns over the impact/effects of media always reinforce whenever a
new communication technology is introduced in the society because technology always
has positive or negative impact.
The question arises that cable television, as a communication technology, is quite
affordable, available to majority for 24 hours, enhances the choice and provides variety of
channels and programmes that are foreign and local may have effects. Schiller (1976)
defines cultural imperialism as a process of imposition of cultural institutions and values
of less developed nations and dependant states by developed countries. Therefore, this
research probed the effects of cable television on women in Lahore, Pakistan.
1.2 Objectives of the Study
By the year 2006, the number of households having access to cable television has
increased manifolds. The growth and usage of cable television was rapid in Pakistan.
According to the Pakistan Advertisers’ Society, the number of households that have
access to cable television has increased to 29 percent in 2004 from 5 percent in 2002
whereas according to Pakistan Electronic Media Regulatory Authority (PEMRA), 45
percent of the households were enjoying the cable television facility in 2006. Zia (2003)
3
reports that growth of cable television has resulted into a spill over of the Indian and
western channels to Pakistani audience. The primary beneficiaries were the ZEE TV,
Sony, Star Plus, HBO, sports channels etc.
These western and Indian channels have grabbed attention of viewers in Pakistan
and exposed its audience to programmes that were vividly different to the usual available
programmes on local television channels. There was an apprehension among the public
that these Indian and western channels may adversely affecting viewers’ minds and
activities. Therefore, it was high time to conduct a study on cable television effects. So
this research has been conducted to find out the effects of cable television in Pakistan.
General aim of this study was to ascertain effects of cable television on women in
Lahore, Pakistan. This study tried to record the demographic characteristics of cable
television subscribers (women only) and measured their level of viewership. The study
also tends to find out respondents’ preferred channels and programmes. It also tried to
find out whether or not there existed any gender difference in cable television viewing.
Following were the specific objectives of the study to:
· Explore how viewing of cable television was affecting their household chores and
other activities;
· Gauge association between viewing of cable television and change in family and
social interaction patterns of women (18-40 years) in Lahore, Pakistan;
· Find out relationship between viewing of cable television and its effects on
personal appearance and style of women;
· Determine relationship between viewing of cable television and changes in
cultural practices;
· Examine association between viewing of cable television and its effect on house
and personal expenditure of women in Lahore, Pakistan;
· Assess association between viewing of foreign channels and role of Pakistani
women in society;
· Propose recommendations for policy-makers, viewers and media practitioners.
1.3 Hypothesis
The hypothesis designed for the study was as follows:
1.3.1 (A) Major Hypothesis
Greater the exposure to cable television greater the effect on the lives of women in
Lahore, Pakistan
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The core purpose of this study was to dig out the influence of foreign channels
and Pakistani channels with foreign contents on social life, values and behaviour patterns
of female viewers through cable television. The researcher was interested to examine if
the cable television has any affects on women in Pakistan and if ‘yes’, to what extent has
it effected the women at basic level in terms of the following factors:
· Domestic and other activities;
· Family and social interaction patterns;
· Appearance and style;
· Cultural practices i.e. food, language, dress, traditions and religion;
· Domestic and personal expenditure; and
· Role of Pakistani women in society.
Researcher had selected the above-mentioned factors based on the conclusion,
after reviewing the relevant literature i.e., most of the researchers were of the view that
television viewing generates socio-economic and cultural changes. The following subhypotheses
were formed on the basis of above-mentioned factors.
1.3.2 (B) Sub-Hypotheses
1. Heavy viewers of cable television experience greater degree of effect on their
domestic and other activities than moderate and light viewers.
2. Heavy viewers of cable television experience a greater degree of change in their
family and social interaction patterns than moderate and light viewers.
3. Heavy viewers of cable television tend to show a greater degree of acceptance of
television characters’ appearance and style than moderate and light viewers.
4. Heavy viewers of cable television experience greater degree of effect on their
cultural practices than moderate and light viewers.
5. Heavy viewers of cable television experience a greater degree of effect on their
domestic and personal expenditures than moderate and light viewers.
6. Heavy viewers of cable television tend to show a greater degree of acceptance of
roles of women as portrayed on Indian and western channels than moderate and
light viewers.
1.4 Rationale
This study was aimed at finding out effects of cable television on Pakistani women with
emphasis on measuring these effects on women belonging to Lahore and viewing cable
television for a minimum of two years. The study was important as there was a general
5
concern in the society about cable television and their impact/effects on women
particularly if they were heavy viewers of cable television. But little or no attention had
been paid in the past to the actual consumption of cable television and its impact on
audience, particularly on women of reproductive age in Lahore, Pakistan.
1.4.1 Selection of Cable Television
With the advancement in technology, media studies need to be shifted towards those new
technological gadgets that seem to have become popular globally. Cable television has
been put under analysis as it is the most readily available form of media and is gaining
immense popularity among the masses in Pakistan. A former study (sample size 2000) by
the researcher regarding an opinion survey for cable viewing habits in Pakistan showed
that 90 percent of the population of Lahore had access to cable television. It, therefore,
presented a fairly good picture of the availability and acceptability of cable television.
The cable television has become a requirement across Pakistan and is not
considered a luxury any more. Its rapid spread and acceptance within a short span of time,
entitles for a proper study to gauge its effects.
The government of Pakistan legalized cable television network in June 2000. The
government explained that cable television had emerged as one of the most inexpensive
means of entertainment in the county. The authorities wanted to support the cable
television network and increase its popularity among viewers. Introduction of policies and
proper rules and regulations by the government ensured transmission of good
programmes through their channels. The declared policy of cable television says that
government in principles has decided to promote and strengthen this modern network
through regular rules, regulations and code of conduct to encourage smooth flow of
information, knowledge, education, healthy and constructive entertainment programmes
for general public ((Zia, 2003, p. 135).
The concern of the researcher was carried on from here forth because cable
television as a mass media tool was undeniably popular in Pakistan and has become a
flourishing business. Its status changed from “a luxury” and has rather become a
household commodity. According to a research report of sample size of 2000 conducted
in Lahore by the researcher, 90 percent of the households in Lahore own a personal cable
connection (Zia, 2004, p.10).
Thus, the research intended to bring under examination effects, this household
commodity has on its consumers.
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1.4.2 Research on Cable Television Effects
In 19th century, new technologies and the spread of literacy led to the development of a
remarkable new form of communication: the mass communication. Since that period,
concern over powerful media effects has been expressed by society’s educated elite,
individuals and groups from all strata of population; from presidents to parents and from
intelligentsia to beginning students. These historical instances of concern about
detrimental societal affects of media messages have been strong and loud enough to
influence lawmakers, public policy makers and attract the interest of numerous scholars.
Therefore, the researcher believes that present study could perform the same function.
We live in a world where we receive a multitude of mediated messages daily.
Thompson and Bryant (2002) state that the knowledge of effects from mediated
communication assumed an increased importance. We have become information-oriented
and information-dependent and some have dubbed ours as an “Information Society”.
Computers and mass media are vital cogs in our societal infrastructure. With so much of
what is perceived to be wrong, in today’s world, has been blamed on the media of
communication of some sort or another. The issue of mass media effects has become one
of the paramount social relevance. Media effect is an important and fascinating research
domain. A fundamental knowledge of media effects is a necessary criterion for excelling
in the information age.
James Current (1988) said “Empirically grounded audience research stressing
audience power also raises difficulties”. Much of this work is directed towards the short
term media influence, even through media influence is primarily long term and
cumulative. Concerns over impacts/effects of media always reinforce whenever a new
communication technology is introduced in the society because technology has never
been neutral. It always has negative or positive impact. Thus to judge the effects of cable
television, a communication system recently gained popularity in Pakistan is the most
relevant and important area of research for communication experts and researchers.
Since the acceptability of cable television has been termed as a household
commodity, it was therefore necessary to check whether it has any impact on its
consumers or not. More importantly, if it does have an impact, the researcher intended to
explore the nature of the impact. The researcher observed that laws and rules have been
devised but the cable operators are not abiding them.
7
A study conducted by Saleem (1994) on ‘Impact of Dish Antenna on Pakistani
Society” concluded that 44 percent of the respondents felt considerable impact upon their
social behaviour. Viewers of programmes through dish antenna felt a change in their
outlook towards life and became more broad-minded. The study further revealed that
satellite communication was introducing international culture and viewers were admiring
the general living standards of social values of western and Indian societies. Majority of
the women respondents in this study were of the opinion that dresses hairstyles and
jewellery of Indian and western models grabbed their attention the most. Therefore, new
trends and fashions were making their way in our society.
Through this dissertation, the researcher intended to explore whether people are
adopting these new trends and fashions or not. In light of the findings of the study
conducted by the researcher herself: “Cable Television Network in Pakistan
Development, Usage, Prospects and Dilemmas” in 2003 the programmes that were being
projected on the satellite channels were pre-dominantly western and Indian. On these
cable television networks, a lot of undesirable programmes and advertisements were also
being screened without any fear of being checked as the government does not have any
system of check and balance.
1.4.3 Study on Women
Women population under study has been further divided into three categories: light
viewers (watching cable television from 1-2 hours daily), moderate viewers (watching
cable television for more than 2 but less then 4 hours daily) and heavy viewers (watching
cable television 4 and more then 4 hours daily). They live in contrasting social set-ups,
have different levels of education, reside in different environments and have varying
exposure to outer world and communication opportunities. All these factors have been
taken into consideration because the researcher intended to examine varying affects on
females according to their demographic characteristics.
With the reference to passive audience behaviour of the women as stated by
Bellour (1975), moving images on screen function simultaneously for the imaginary and
the symbolic. As the spectator enters into a filmic experience, she first identifies with the
cinematic apparatus; the projector functions as the eye. Secondly, she has a narcissistic
identification with the image and then as she moves from imaginary to the symbolic, she
desires the image. Laura Mulvey further suggests that in order to derive visual pleasure,
the female spectator must identify with the passive, fetish position of the female character
8
on screen. Hence, with such concern in the back of her mind, it was very necessary to
measure those implicit and explicit effects that (might) affect the behaviour and attitudes
of the female-audience.
It is a general observation that females in Pakistan are the housewives. A very
small segment of the female population professionally works. Hence their exposure to
outside world is limited. Thus, their perception falls back upon the mediated and
glamorised reality via television. This also directed attention towards an important issue:
the weak analytical and expressive powers of female population in general. Even if the
women possess communicative skills, they are not provided with a proper platform to get
themselves heard. Further, in Pakistan’s male-dominated society, women are not
encouraged to come forward and speak-out their minds. Such observations developed the
need of this study.
In Pakistan, a woman is supposed to perform an important responsibility of
bringing up their children. She is considered as the first institution of the society from
where the child learns. Moreover, woman is also the one who is responsible for keeping
intact the value system of the family unit and thus the women population holds the key to
value system of the society in general. Hence, this study had a strong rationale for
analyzing the effects women are receiving through the cable television.
Zia (2003) mentioned that cable television channels have been immensely popular
among viewers, particularly among women folk in Pakistan. Public concern over the ill
effects of media violence and sexuality, explicit content, obscenity and vulgar language
shown through cable television channels is evident and important. This caused many to
criticize the channels and express concern over the effects of such material on an innocent
and expanding viewership. It was reported in the national dailies several times that angry
viewers physically attacked the cable operators. On the other hand, the PEMRA does not
have any proper system of check and balance and monitoring cable networks. Thus, this
study was deemed significant for the public and the policy makers.
A study by Zia (2004) concluded that entertainment was the primary purpose of
viewing cable television and 70 percent female cable viewers were interested in watching
only two kinds of programmes: films and dramas. Only 17.3 percent of the women used
cable television for information and awareness purpose. Therefore, this study focused on
women only and analysed the affects of these programmes on them. The study has
provided certain recommendations on the bases of these affects.
9
Thompson and Bryant (2002) expressed that new media enabled users to become
more active in communication process and to be more selective with regard to messages
they receive. They were active agents rather than passive receivers of information. They
may be called addressable users of micro multimedia television. Bellour (1975)
considered women as passive audience but was converting them into an active audience.
Hence, with all these aspects in mind, the study explored the area of cable
watching and its effects with special reference to women residing in Lahore, Pakistan.
1.5 Brief History of Cable Television
The traditional mass media had a confined sphere in countries where it initially grew,
functioning strictly in line with the values, norms, traditions and basic requirements of the
local populace. But, the invention of new technologies like satellite communication, cable
television and internet has helped it cross national boundaries and address the worldwide
audience. These boosting inventions have, in fact, made the world a global village by
transforming media into an international entity.
We are living in an era which has frequently been characterized as ‘the age of
communication revolution’ a cycle of profound and accelerating social and cultural
change often attributed to the impact of new media technologies. This communication
revolution is, in fact, a succession of three overlapping technological stages that have
taken place during the last 150 years (Zia, 2003, p.1).
Encyclopedia Britannica (1986) describes cable television that generally, a system
that distributes television signals by means of coaxial or fibre optic cables. The term also
includes systems that distribute signals solely via satellite. Cable television system
originated in United States in the early 1950s and was designed to improve reception of
commercial network broadcasts in remote and hilly areas.
1.6 World History of Cable Television
John Walson, an appliance storeowner in a small town of Mahanoy, had difficulty selling
television sets to local residents because reception in the area was poor. The problem
seemed to be the location of the town in a valley and nearly 90 air miles from the
Philadelphia television transmitters. Naturally, signals could not pass through mountains
and clear reception was virtually impossible except on the ridges outside of town.
It was frustrating for those who had just purchased an expensive set but not
receiving clear transmission. Reasons for poor reception were well-understood. For one
thing, the early transmitters were not very powerful. If one lived close to the station, there
10
were few limitations. But for those living some distance away, reception could be poor,
the picture was often fuzzy, distorted or faint. Even a passing car could create electrical
interference and fill the screen with ‘snow’ or cause the picture to roll. In addition, the
fact that television signals travel in a straight line reduced the quality of reception or even
made it impossible behind large buildings on the back side of hills or mountains and in
similar positions.
To solve his problem, Mr. Walson put an antenna on the top of a large utility pole
and installed it on the top of a nearby mountain. Television signals were received and
transported over twin lead antenna wire down to his store. Once people saw these early
results, television sales soared. It became his responsibility to improve the picture quality
by using coaxial cable and self- manufactured ‘boosters’ (amplifiers to bring cable
television to the homes of customers who bought television sets. And as such the cable
television was born in June 1948.
In the early 1950’s, television was fairly new. Though it had not yet become
popular, city department stores displayed many different models for sale. And, like an
apartment house where every resident had his/her own television, the rooftops of stores
were beginning to resemble forests of television antennas. Milton Jerrold Shapp, who
later became governor of Pennsylvania, developed a system to consolidate the forest of
antennas for city department stores and apartment buildings. Under this new system, one
master antenna (MATV) could be used for all television in the building. His secret: the
coaxial cable and signal boosters (amplifiers) capable of carrying multiple signals at once.
At about the same time, in the nearby town of Lansford, another appliance
salesman named Robert (Bob) Tarlton experienced similar problems as those faced by
Mr. Walson. He read about Mr. Shapp’s new system and though it worked for apartment
houses and department stores, it could work for his own town as well. While the
community was only 65 miles from Philadelphia, it was behind a mountain that interfered
with signals. Tarlton decided to try a new approach. He put up a big antenna and for a
monthly fee he provided a cable hook-up to each subscriber’s home. He called his new
business the “Panther Valley Television Company”, and he was able to supply excellent
signals to people who could not otherwise operate a receiver. He did not originate any
new programming. All he did was to capture network broadcasts with his community
antenna and relay them to homes on his system.
11
1.6.1 Cable Develops in the World
Pay television was launched in November 1972 when Service Electric offered Home Box
Office or HBO over its cable system in Wilkes Barre, Pennsylvania. This represented the
first successful pay cable service to the nation. Despite the fact that HBO was only
viewed by a few hundred people that first night, it has gone on to become the world’s
largest pay cable service with over 11,500,000 viewers. So HBO decided to deliver its
signals by satellite.
HBO was the first programming service to use a satellite to distribute its
programming. The way it works is that a signal is beamed from the earth to a satellite in a
stationary orbit some 22,300 miles over the equator and bounced back to receivers on the
earth. By satellite distribution, HBO’s signals are available to cable operators throughout
North America. Because it is so widely available, it had an advantage over the earthbound,
microwave distributed services such as WOR-TV- an independent station in New
York city.
Cable is in many ways a bit different; however there is certainly a greater variety
of choice. For a monthly fee, one can receive the ‘basic’ service, which is usually a mixed
bag that includes network broadcasts plus special channels that feature weather, sports,
religious programmes, news, public service announcements, rock music and various other
kinds of content. For additional fees one can add movie channels or other special services.
1.7 Development of Television in Pakistan
Authorities in Pakistan introduced television in 1964 with the aim to uplift the nation
socially and culturally. As Pakistan was a newly-born state and under-developed, it was
thought that television could help in achieving progress in the country through
dissemination of information, knowledge, education and awareness. Before Pakistan
television started in 1964, Pakistani public was a little bit familiar with television through
an exhibition where Philips Electrical Company installed a few television sets and
televised few foreign films. In October 1963, a national publicity conference was held
under the chairmanship of the President Ayub Khan that decided to set up a television
station in Pakistan. Hence Pakistan entered into television broadcasting age with a small
pilot television station at Lahore on November 26, 1964 from where transmission was
beamed black and white. This station telecast some live but amateur programmes and
some of foreign films. Initially, television centre was set up with the help of UNESCO,
Colombo plan and Japanese government. To meet the graving cost of television
12
broadcasting, commercial telecast was also permitted but no license fee was charged on
television set at that time.
1.7.1 Pakistan Television Corporation Limited
Initially the Government of Pakistan established a private company in collaboration with
the Japanese Nippon Electrical Company (NEC) and Britain World known Thomas
Television International which initially started television programming in 1964. The
shares of the government of Pakistan were greater then the private company. On May 29,
1967 the company turned into a public limited company namely Pakistan Television
Corporation and registered under Company’s Act 1913.
The Managing Director, always nominated by the government, is the managing
and executive head of the corporation and implements rules formulated for the
Corporation and its employees. A Board of Directors comprises 10 members and looks
after policy maters and important affairs of the Corporation. The central office of the
corporation consists of seven divisions accordingly.
1.7.2 Development of Pakistan Television Corporation Limited
Pakistan Television has now five centres throughout the country including Karachi and
Rawalpindi television centres, which were established in 1967 and Peshawar and Quetta
centres in 1975. Ptv-Karachi Centre along with four re-broadcast stations at Thana Bola
Khan, Shikarpur, Noorpur and Thando Allahyar, connected to other centres in the country
through microwave link, cover about 90 percent of the population. Until 1968, when the
network procured the required VTR recording equipment, it was perforce transmitting
only live from the studios, and then mostly operating in rented buildings. And in 1976, it
switched over to color transmission. It has established its own training academy as well.
Now Ptv has been converted into a profitable organization with a leap of Rs. 287 million
from Rs. 1431 to Rs. 1718 million in advertising income; from Rs. 148 million net
operating losses to Rs. 38 million net operating profits.
1.7.3 Ptv World
A new satellite channel Ptv World was launched in 1991. With the opening of Ptv World,
Pakistani programmes are now being viewed in other parts of the world via satellite.
Mideast Time, an extension of Ptv World, targets Pakistani expatriates in the Middle East.
1.7.4 Ptv National
The objective of the Ptv National is providing different local news as well as
entertainment in all languages in different part of the country.
13
1.7.5 AJK TV
AJK television is a Kashmiri Channel providing different programmes for local viewers
and Kashmiri and Gojrati news.
1.8 Induction of Private Sector in Broadcast Media
In Pakistan the broadcast media has remained under the government control during the
last 40 years of the country’s history. However, the last decade witnessed a great change
in the media policy of the government and media gradually opened up to the private
sector. In line with the global trends it also introduced the new media technologies in the
country resulting in a rapid growth of broadcast media in the country.
The late 80’s and early 90’s marked a turning point on the electronic media
landscape with the emergence of Shalimar Television Network (STN), although partially
state-owned as an alternate channel to Ptv in 1989. In 1996, the government allowed
private radio and television outlets namely FM-100 and Shaheen Pay TV, which assumed
the shape of an industry.
1.9 Cable Television Network in Pakistan
In Pakistan, the cable television network was quietly introduced at a small scale in
Karachi in the early 80’s in the absence of any regulatory law. It started from the city’s
apartment buildings and worked without any large-scale equipment because of the close
proximity of the apartments. Main attraction for subscribers was Indian and English
movies and Ptv dramas which the operators would obtain on rent from nearby video
centres. Operation rooms were usually set up in the basements of the buildings, giving
connections to each apartment from there. Each household was paying a small monthly
fee to the operator for the service. (Zia, 2003)
In 1982, according to Director Pakistan Telecommunication Authority (PTA), the
availability of satellite channels in Pakistan brought about a major change in the cable
network operations. Cable operators who were relying on the video cassettes until now
felt the need for installing satellite-receiving dishes to provide a variety of programmes to
their subscribers through CNN, Star TV and various Indian channels. Thus the large scale
cable network emerged out of the already established cable system. Cable system started
to expand by a stringing of wires from one rooftop to another and so on. The system in
Karachi gradually flourished and many people entered in this business.
During early 1990’s satellite television became an irresistible phenomenon in
Pakistan, particularly in Punjab. But in 1998, all major channels were transferred to
14
decoders, which were a lot more expensive and the annual subscription was also beyond
the reach of a common man. A man once setup this satellite system for his own personal
use and then started providing this service to neighbouring areas against a small fee.
Thus, this gave way to the business of cable television networking which established and
flourished in a short period.
The government took notice of this illegal operation in the late 1998. The Nawaz
Sharif headed government came to conclusion that cable operation be made legal in
Pakistan. But before any action could be taken, the Nawaz Sharif government was
toppled and the armed forces took command of the nation’s destiny and started
considering legalization of the cable television. The army regime headed by General
Musharraf legalized cable television operations in January 2000.
The Pakistan Telecommunication Authority (PTA) started the procedure of
issuing licenses to the cable operators in January 2000. The following is the data for the
number of issued application forms and responses received till June 2000. PTA chairman
Mian Muhammad Javed explained that cable television had now emerged as one of the
most inexpensive means of entertainment in the country which government wanted to
make more popular among users and viewers by framing policies and proper rules and
regulations to ensure transmission of good programmes through their channels.
The legalization process of cable television networks started in November 1998
and completed in 2000. Therefore, in June 2000, cable television networks started
functioning legally which initiated a new era of electronic media in Pakistan. This raised
a number of new queries and gave an opportunity to people to discuss this new system of
communication in Pakistan.
1.10 Cable Television Licenses
There were eight categories of cable television licenses ranging from B-1 to B-8 based on
the number of subscribers. Till December 2001, total number of legal cable operators was
840 across the country. Out of these, a majority of operators were based in Karachi,
Lahore and in some other major cities of Punjab. For the running of one small set-up at
least 8-10 employees were required. About 8,000 people got employment through this
system and were providing livelihood to about 50,000 persons. On the other hand illegal
cable operators also continued to work. They add up to about 3,000 and were providing
employment opportunities to a large number of people (Zia, 2003: 88).
15
PTA issued nationwide licenses to the cable operators and the issuance of the
license to an eligible firm(s)/company may take seven days on the receipt of the
application.
Table 1.1: Licenses Issued to Cable Operators from June 2000 to Dec. 2001 by PTA
Category
Islamabad/
NWFP
Punjab/
Lahore Karachi Total
B-1 110 328 333 771
B-2 3 7 42 52
B-3 0 2 1 3
B-4 1 1 1 3
B-5 0 0 1 1
B-6 0 0 1 1
B-7 0 0 0 0
B-8 5 0 1 6
Total 119 338 380 837
Source: Pakistan Telecommunication Authority
It can be seen from the above table that maximum licenses were issued in Karachi
i.e. 380 and minimum were issued in Islamabad/NWFP i.e. 119 whereas Lahore issued
338 licenses throughout Punjab. This shows that the growth of cable television network is
at its peak in Karachi and in Punjab including that cable television was warmly welcomed
in these areas and people accepted it with pleasure.
Cable television has been growing rapidly in major cities of the country since the
government authorised PTA to issue licences to cable operators in early 2000. The
number of households using this service has crossed 2.5 million. In the densely populated
cities, like Karachi and Lahore, the growth of cable television is rapid as the operators do
not have to face high installation cost. Secondly, houses are close to each other, making
16
supplying of connections easier than in cities like Islamabad where the houses are not so
close. Therefore, in the federal capital, cable television system is far from being a
thriving trend as cable operators see dim business prospects in the field.
According to a study in which three thousand people were interviewed in different
areas of town, cable network has expanded 25 percent in just one year. (Zia, 2003: 89).
1.11 Formation of Pakistan Electronic Media Regulatory Authority
An independent cooperate body namely Pakistan Electronic Media Regulatory Authority
(PEMRA) was established to regulate the process of awarding licenses to private and
public sector, for smooth functioning of private media and to effectively deal with the
public complaints on March 1, 2002 after the lapse of the PEMRA Ordinance in 1997.
This body is functional since April 15, 2002. PEMRA consisted of a Chairman and nine
members appointed by President of Pakistan. PEMRA inherited 848 licenses from PTA
and issued around 1173 new licenses.
1.11.1 PEMRA Vision
· To promote the electronic media in Pakistan so as:
1. To reflect the aspirations of people at national and international level
2. To serve as a catalyst for socio-economic development
· Exploit indigenous human and financial resources in the broadcasting field to gain
competitive advantage and become a leading player in the region
· Introduce state of the art technologies
1.11.2 Mandate of PEMRA
· To improve the standards of information, education and entertainment
· To expand choices available to people of Pakistan in media for news, current
affairs, religious knowledge, art, culture, science, technology, economic
development, social sector concerns, music, sports, drama and other subjects of
public and national interest
· To improve people’s access to mass media at local and community level
· To ensure accountability, transparency and good governance by optimizing free
flow of information
1.11.3 Functions of the Authority
PTA is responsible for facilitating and regulating the establishment and operation of all
the broadcast media and distribution services in Pakistan established for international,
national, provincial, district and local or special target audiences.
17
1.11.4 Aims and Objectives
PTA thus underscored following key objectives:
· To streamline cable television operations in Pakistan by identifying actual and
potential cable television homes in Pakistan
· To mutually resolve issues/grievances between cable television operators and
service providers by determining reasonable tariff structure
· To ensure positive contribution to the economy by attracting and encouraging
potential investors in the field of electronic media
· To enhance the existing revenue base of PEMRA
· To avoid massive larceny of government revenue in the form of taxes and tariffs
caused due to concealing of facts about actual income by cable television
operators
· To evade anomalies and piracy issues in electronic media
For obvious reasons, cable television still remains the fastest growing sector in the
domain of electronic media in the country. PTA has evolved a comprehensive policy to
grant licenses for establishing cable television networks, identifying for them baskets of
television channels and introducing them to new media technologies.
PEMRA has issued cable television regulations, developed a code of ethics for
operators selected 54 eligible television channels for distribution detected over 2,000
illegal cable television operators/loop line holders and regularized rural areas cable
television operators. Till February 2004, there were 1,105 licensed cable television
operators in the country, whereas many more are being licensed and almost double the
number are under process for regularization. As per Sedat and Murshad Associates survey
and study, an estimated investment in this segment is over Rs. 7.28 billion with annual
growth rate of 132 percent for the last three years. It covers over 5-6 million households
with approximately 30,000 personnel working on self-employment basis. Other surveys
have revealed that cable and satellite penetration has grown from 5 percent in 1998 to
approximately 45 percent in 2006 in the country (Report 2003- 06: PEMRA).
During the years 2003 - 2006, PEMRA has issued 788 licenses in various
categories for launching cable television networks in various parts of the country that is in
addition to the licenses inherited by the PEMRA from PTA. Province-wise number of
licenses issued is as follows:
· Sindh -------------------- 313
18
· Punjab -------------------235
· NWFP------------------- 52
· Islamabad -------------- 118
· Balochistan ------------- 70
Table 1.2: Licenses Issued to Cable Operators till 2006 by PEMRA
License
category
Islamabad
Region
Punjab
region
NWFP
Region
Sindh
Region
Balochistan
Region
Total
B(LH) 09 99 12 00 08 125
B-1 90 236 50 219 28 622
B-2 18 07 03 71 03 94
B-3 02 01 00 24 01 25
B-4 00 01 00 03 00 05
B-5 00 01 00 03 01 04
B-6 00 00 00 00 00 00
B-7 00 00 00 00 00 00
B-8 00 00 00 02 00 02
B-9 00 00 00 00 00 00
B-10 00 00 00 01 00 01
Rural (R) 63 60 17 217 43 365
Hotel (H) 00 03 00 04 01 08
Total 182 408 82 544 85 1301
Source: Pakistan Electronic Media Regulatory Authority.
19
The authority retains the approved list of satellite television channels under
constant review, periodically revising it to cater to public taste, needs and demands. Its
current list has on it 49 satellite television channels excluding the Pakistani ones. The list
is enclosed at:
· Religious Channels ----------------------------02
· News Channels ----------------------------11
· Educational and Informational Channels----09
· Entertainment Channels-----------------------06
· Sports Channels --------------------------06
· Entertainment Channels-----------------------15
The list is widely circulated among cable television operators for their information
and compliance.
The number of connections has been increased from 2.9 million in 2003 to more 4
million homes in 2006 in Pakistan. However, cable operators do not have any device to
censor whatever the channels are broadcasting. In addition to this PEMRA does not have
any system to monitor the channels which are being transferred to the connection holders
by the cable operators.
Table 1.3: Number of Cable Television Subscribers in the Country
Areas / Region
Declared subscribers by
cable television operators
Implemented
subscribers through
enforcement so far
Islamabad 40,244 223,000
Sindh 88,332 1,497,905
Punjab 22,356 1,011,000
NWFP 17,037 499,017
Balochistan 8,434 40,000
Grand total 176,392 3,270,922
Source: Pakistan Electronic Media Regulatory Authority
20
1.11.5 Cost Effectiveness for End-Users
According to 2003-2006 report, published by PEMRA, the cable television operators at
present in different parts of country were charging competitive rates from subscribers.
The one time connection fee ranges from Rs.500 to Rs. 2,000.
Table 1.4: Technology and Connection Charges
Technology Connection charges/installation(Rs) Monthly subscription
(in Rs)
Cable Television 500 – 2000 225 – 350
MMDS 1500 – 2000 200- 350
DTH 10,000 – 12000 250 – 350
Source: Pakistan Electronic Media Regulatory Authority
The growth in subscription of above technologies is correlated with the cost effectiveness
that is offered to end-users.
Table 1.5 portrays a survey of the television viewership in the country by
household income group.
Table 1.5: Television Viewership by Household Income
Monthly
household
income (Rs.)
Viewers percentage Estimated numbers
Up to 4,000 35 14,843,000
4001-7000 51 17,107,000
7001-15000 72 11,845,000
15000+ 81 7,843,000
Source: Gallup Survey of Pakistan
Cable television operators all over the country have been relaying programmes
and advertisements on self-generated CD channels in explicit violation of the provisions
21
of PEMRA regulations. By doing so they were causing damage to the satellite television
channel operators by fetching advertisements at a very cheaper cost. Moreover, content
and quantity of such private channels was also devoid of PEMRA rules.
On the other hand, cable television operators of the country have persistently
demanded PEMRA for granting permission for in-house channels and advertising on
cable television networks. PEMRA has therefore devised a policy for registration of inhouse
channels for cable television operators. The very purpose of this policy is to ensure
the level playing field for stakeholders by regulating illegal transpiration of in-house
channels.
The number of such channels is now restricted to five (maximum) according to
categories of cable television licenses. Whereas, in past they were showing 15 to 20 such
channels by flouting all the regulations and norms. No operator is allowed to transmit
their local channels or to insert ads without prior permission/license of the Authority. The
license for in-house channel and its fee is in addition to the license for cable television
operation.
Moreover, the sector had over the time come to be lighted massively by the
courage of loopline connections. Instead of going for rather impracticable punitive
actions, the Authority thought it more prudent and practicable to bring the operators of
these illegal connections in its net by offering them concessions. To this end, it introduced
for operators running their cable operations on loopline from any licensed cable television
head-end operators, a category marked as cable television license of loop-line holders
(LH Category). It provides two options to such loop holders. They can either obtain an
independent license in LH Category maintaining their independent status or they may
become an agent to the licensed cable television operator. Both options were evolved in
consultation with various representatives of cable television operators associations and
stakeholders (PEMRA: Annual Report 2002-2003). As such, some good results were
obtained and PEMRA issued 640 head-end licenses till 2006 in Punjab. In Lahore,
PEMRA has issued 83 head-end licensees till 2006, out of which 68 are active and 276
loop holders are successfully handling cable perorations and serving 0.35 million
subscribers. Every cable operator/loop holder provides more than 100 channels to
connection holder.
22
1.12 Private Sector in Broadcast Media
In Pakistan the broadcast media has remained under the government control. However,
the last decade witnessed a great change in media policy of government and media
gradually opened up to private sector. In line with global trends it also introduced new
media technologies in the country and the resultantly a rapid growth of broadcast media
in the country was witnessed.
In 1989 Shalimar Television Network (STN) although partially state-owned,
emerged as an alternate channel to Ptv. The government in 1996 allowed private radio
and television outlets, namely FM-100 and Shaheen Pay TV, which assumed the shape of
an industry. In practical terms, it meant competition and resultantly the creation of a
broad spectrum environment for access to information, education and entertainment.
Until August 1990, Pakistan Television Corporation (Ptv) was the only state
owned television channel. At that time, however, another television channel, People's
Television Network, was established which brought Cable News Network (CNN) to
Pakistan. This channel was also partially government controlled. Presently, more than 20
satellite television channels having Pakistani contents are being broadcast with different
names including foreign band channels including:
· AJK · ARY Digital Pakistan · ARY One World
· Geo TV · Indus Music · Indus News
· Indus Plus · Indus Vision · KTN
· Ptv 1 · Ptv Channel 3 · Ptv National
· QTV · The City Channel · The Music
· UNI Plus · Geo News · Apna Channel
The present situation in Pakistan shows dominance both by public sector and
private/commercial media, with PTV having an extensive reach because of its extensive
network of stations and boosters. It has a greater acceptability and credibility of people in
areas where it can be watched through cable network and satellite dish antennas.
Currently, in Pakistan we can differentiate three kinds of television channels:
1. State-owned television channels
23
2. Privately-owned commercial television channels that are not PEMRA licensee
but telecast from abroad
3. Privately-owned commercial television channels that are PEMRA licensee
1.12.1 State-Owned Television Channels
State-owned television channels are those whose 100 percent shares are with the
government of Pakistan. These are Ptv, Ptv National, and Ptv World. Ptv has sold STN
time to a private company that is running the channel with another name, Atv.
1.12.2 Non-PEMRA Licensee
Several satellite television channels are freely telecasting their transmissions from outside
Pakistan but originating virtually their entire content from within the country without
facing major obstructions. They include Geo, ARY Asia, The Music, Drama Plus, Iqra,
QTV, UNI PLUS, Al-Irfan, Al-Noor, Sun TV, TV-ONE, Indus News, Style Duniya,
Business Plus, Aaj TV and Apna channel.
1.12.3 PEMRA Licensee
PEMRA has issued 16 licenses in private sector till 2005 which are allowed to uplink
from Pakistan. These are enlisted in Table 1.6. Those in bold type are on air and the
remaining are about to become functional for public in a short period of time. All of these
are commercial channels.
24
Table 1.6: The PEMRA Licence Holder Private Channels
Sr.
No.
Name/Title of licensee Name of channel
1 Virtual University, Lahore
[Two Channels]
License issued for
“VTV 1”
“VTV 2”
“VTV 3”
“VTV 4”
2 Indus TV Network (Pvt.) Ltd., Karachi
[Two Channels]
License issued for
“Indus Music”
“Indus Vision”
3 AVT Prime Pvt. Ltd., Islamabad. Licence Issued for
“Khyber TV”
4 ARY Communications Pvt. Ltd. Karachi
[Two Channels]
Licence issued for
“ARY ONE World”
“ARY Digital”
5 Mashriq Television Pvt. Ltd,, Lahore Licence Issued for
“Mashriq TV”
6 International Marketing and Trading
Company (Pvt.) Ltd. Lahore.
Licence Issued
7 Top End Network (Pvt.) Ltd., Lahore. Licence Issued
8 Eye TV Ltd, Karachi "Hum TV"
9 Vision Network TV Ltd, Karachi Licence Issued
10 24-Seven Media Network (pvt) Ltd,
Karachi
Licence Issued
11 Southern Networks Limited, Islamabad Licence Issued
Source: Pakistan Electronic Media Regulatory Authority
Number of Licenses 16 Gone ‘on-air’ 10
25
1.13 Government and Private Television Channels in Pakistan
The cable operators are offering following local channels: AAG TV - 24 Hour Pakistani
Music Channel
· AAJ TV - Entertainment Television
· APNA - Punjabi Entertainment Television
· ARYONE World - 24 Hour Urdu/English News Channel
· ARY Digital Pakistan
· ARY Digital USA
· ARY Digital Europe
· ATV - Aik Duniya Nayee
· AJK TV - National Kashmiri Television
· AVT Khyber - National Pushto Channel
· BUSINESS Plus TV - 24 Hour Business News Channel
· Cartoon Network Pakistan - 24 Hour Children Programming
· CNBC Pakistan - Profit From It
· Channel G-24 Hour Music Channel
· DM Digital Pakistan-UK Based Channel
· FILMAZIA - Lollywood Film Channel
· GEO TV - Har Pal Geo!
· GEO News - 24 Hour News Service
· HBO Pakistan - 24 Hour Hollywood Flims
· HUM TV - Hum Sub Kay Liay
· INDUS Music - 24 Hour Pakistani Music Channel (Affiliated with MTV)
· INDUS Vision - Your Drama Channel
· INDUS Plus - Hur Lamha Aap Ke Saath!
26
· INDUS News - 24 Hours Round The Clock News
· INDUS USA - For North American Viewers
· INDUS Europe - For European Viewers
· KTN - National Sindhi Channel
· Mashriq TV - National Urdu Channel
· Ptv National - Official Domestic State Television
· Ptv World - Official International State Television
· Ptv Bolan - National Balochi Channel
· Ptv Channel 1
· Ptv Channel 3
· Ptv Prime Europe
· Ptv Prime USA
· QTV - 24 Hour Islamic Religious Channel
· Rung TV
· Sindh TV - Sindhi Language Television
· The Musik - 24 Hour Pakistani Music Channel
· TVOne - The ONE To Watch
· City Channel Karachi - Karachi Metro Channel
· UNI Plus - Pakistani Urdu Channel
· Virtual TV1 - Online Educational Channel
· Virtual TV2 - Online Educational Channel
· VIBE - Pakistan's Newest 24 Hour Music Channel
· Vectone - UK Based Urdu Channel
· Sun Biz TV
· Ravi TV
27
· Urdu Music Videos from IM of Pakistan
1.14 International Channels Viewed in Pakistan
Following are the foreign channels offered by cable television operators:
· Star World · Star Plus · Star Gold
· Star Movies · Star Sports · Sahara One
· Sur Sangeet · Super Sports · Ten sports
· Zee Movies · Zee Tv · Zee Smile
· ZOOM · HBO · HallMark
· AXN · Balle Balle · BBC Prime
· Bloom Berg · Cartoon Network · ESPN
· VOX · Fashion TV · ESPN
· FOX · Reality TV · MTV
· Channel V · CNN · Discovery channel
· National Geographic · History · SONY
· Saharay samay · Saudi Tv · LBC
· B4u music · B4u movies · S Max
· Sky sports · South Aisa World · Zee cinema
28
· Star one · CNBC · MTV HITS
· MTV UK · Nickelodeon · Sky Movies
· Sky News · The Hits · Animal Planet
1.15 MMDS and LMDS
Electronic Media Review (2004) reports that the technology of wireless cable (MMDS)
strengthened its roots in Pakistan in the year 1996. Shaheen TV, a subsidiary of Shaheen
Foundation, obtained license from the government of Pakistan to establish analogue
Multi-channel Multipoint Distribution System (MMDS). Initially, Shaheen Pay TV used
to broadcast 10 channels but later increased the number to twelve. A majority of
stakeholders now is the Southern Group. Presently, Shaheen Pay TV is operating in three
cities: Karachi, Lahore and Islamabad.
PEMRA has issued two MMDS licenses for two cities to a company whereas 12
companies are being issued MMDS licenses in other 19 cities. It will provide a wide
choice, comparatively better television services to subscribers. LMDS system is not
operative at the moment in Pakistan. PEMRA plans to issue licenses in this technology in
near future (PEMRA website, 2006).
1.16 Situation Analysis
The cable industry and satellite channels played a mutual complimentary role in the
country and giving a sound impetus to the private television network. An amazing rise of
cable television is evident if one examines the growth rate of cable television operators
over the years. In 2002, the number of cable operators was 837 which increased to 1301
till 2006. Some of them have subscriber basis as low as 1,000 to as high as in hundreds
and thousands. Subscription fee varies from Rs. 225 to Rs. 350 per month. Most of the
networks are providing minimum of 30 to 40 and maximum of 120-150 channels to
subscribers. Cable television network is gradually spreading out in a number of small
towns extending to the rural areas providing the masses access to foreign and local
satellite channels.
The popularity of cable television in the country is owing to the availability of
both local and foreign channels as well as access to round the clock availability of
programmes of a wide variety. People started enjoying this new freedom of choice and
29
came out of the stagnant state of Ptv which monopolised the electronic media field for a
long time. Viewers may have the cable connection by paying nominal amount and can
watch a variety of channels which provide them unlimited number of films, drama, music,
international programmes, sports programmes etc. With the introduction of cable
television, viewers of different age groups and different income groups can now approach
different kinds of local and foreign channels. Another reason for its acceptability and
popularity among the viewers is the leisure and entertainment at their doorstep.
For instance, if a family visits a cinema hall, they have to spend on their
travelling, food stuff and tickets, obviously being expensive to a middle class family.
Now, with the ultimate number of channels on cable television, inexpensive and round
the clock entertainment is available at their home for the entire family. At the same time
they may avoid the programmes on Ptv which lack variety, are unattractive and with a lot
of coverage to the govt activities. As a result these programmes are quite often
monotonous and uninteresting. In contrast, foreign channels provide a variety of
programmes, non-stop entertainment and a choice to all the members of the family.
Moreover, their uncensored presentation is found to be bold and attractive for them.
One of the reasons for the attraction of cable television channels is the live
coverage of international audience hitherto ignored by Ptv in the past. The Ptv news and
current affairs programmes gave more coverage to government activities and most of the
time full of statements and speeches of the VIPs, political leaders and ministers were
telecast. It lacked coverage to social and other issue of common man’s interests.
Therefore, viewers were glad when they received news of events of their interests and
interviews with personalities on BBC, CNN and other private channels rather than
statements by the government officials and celebrities. They were also amazed by visiting
foreign lands by watching programmes on cable television foreign channels and were also
exposed to the behaviour and lifestyle of other nations.
Apart from live coverage of major happenings, interviews with personalities on
news channels, music channels, dramas on Geo, Star Plus, ARY and Sports channels
attracted both viewers and advertisers which posed a serious threat to Ptv. The soap
operas, talk shows, chat shows and other programmes have become quite popular among
viewers of all income status groups, though these programmes promote a very different
values system from that of Pakistanis. As a result, rapid growth of cable television in
Pakistan has not only broken the monopoly of Ptv in the country but also possessed a
challenge to the behaviour and values system of our nation. Further, with the advent of
30
satellite transmission and growth of cable television has enhanced the element of
competition among the television channels. Consequently, local and state-owned
television channels are following the production patterns of foreign channels, particularly
Star Plus owned by Star TV Network. Star plus is projecting and promoting the Indian
traditions, values and culture in Hindi language.
In Pakistan, no other technology has been accepted and ever made a so sudden
impact on minds of peoples as the cable television network has made. With emergence of
private satellite channels, the whole broadcasting industry has been commercialized. The
expansion of commercial broadcasting has created a consumer-oriented market which
further expanded the marketing and advertising infrastructure of Pakistan’s economy.
This was required for the success of the government’s liberal media policy.
One of the important and clear trends observed in Pakistani broadcasting industry
is the shifting of senior, famous and creative directors, producers and broadcasters from
Ptv to the new private television channels. There might be the following reasons for this
act:
· Private television channels are paying heavily to the media professionals i.e.
producers, directors, editors, etc.
· Media professionals are enjoying more freedom to work in private channels as
compared to state-owned media i.e. Ptv and PBC
Another important result of the media expansion is the fragmentation of audience. These
channels provide diversity in content and theme targeting a specific group. There are
separate dedicated channels for sports, movies, music, drama, news, religion etc.
Similarly, there are separate channels for different languages i.e. national, international
and regional. Many indigenous programmes are just replicas of the western and Indian
programmes. Most of the channels show clichés of similar programmes having a few
innovative ideas. This shows that a variety of programmes are available but the content is
almost the same.
31
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
Literature review is considered to be the most important stage of the research process as it
allows to earn from (and eventually add to) previous researches and also saves time,
efforts and money. Therefore, the researcher reviewed all the relevant literature available
on internet and in major libraries across Pakistan. A logical and systematic review of the
literature made the completion of this study possible.
The focal point of this study was to evaluate the effects of cable television on
women’s life patterns in Pakistan. Literature review revealed that one of the major
concerns amongst the researchers all over the world was the amount of exposure to
foreign channels on cable television and its impact on the society. The impact of
television’s incessant presentation of social roles is sometimes a problem for cultures that
differ in their values from the place where these programmes originate. Ideas about
family, interaction, marriage and roles are not the same as projected in foreign
programmes as they are within the native country.
The following section presents a review of the results of relevant studies
conducted in various countries and exposes that there has not been any similar research
conducted in Pakistan.
2.1 International Studies on Television / Cable Television
Latin American communication researchers began to analyze the nature and perceived
effects of the rapid spread of mass media, particularly commercial television as the
foreign cultural influence in their region. Before 1970s, a good deal of attention in Latin
American communication writing was focused on critical analysis of media but with
relatively little attention to audience. Later, emphasis was laid on media and audience by
exploring what popular culture meant for Latin Amercian audience (Mcanany and
Antonio, 1994). The importance of audience and media relationship has been recognized
in the western countries thus the researcher felt the need of addressing the impact of cable
television on the audience (women) in Pakistan also.
A review of the knowledge on new communication technologies pertaining to
cultural identity by Jamias (1993) summarizes that fear burns rife over the negative
impact potential of new communication technologies on cultural identity in rural Asia.
Yet technology is not neutral. Technology is good or bad depending on the use to which it
is put. Research results have shown both positive and negative aspects of media
32
technology. In contrast, the ambivalent nature of new communication technology and
research, in short, should inform media policy. It should inform the choices that people
make in their media usage. The appropriate research approach builds on the primacy of
social needs, not merely at the whims of market forces. And, individual citizens should be
intellectually prepared to be discerning if not critical users of communication media and
products.
Yoshii (2001) finally considers how society and culture could change as a whole
with increased dissemination of new media, changes in communication and states. As a
result of new media as a whole speeding up the flow of information, the world will
undergo radical changes such as it has never before experienced. These changes will, like
it or not, transform social organizations, bringing about what business administrators call
‘temporariness’. And the world will shift to a value system that applauds changes. The
new media, if used improperly, may not only bring about serious social problems but also
give rise to a new rich-poor gap in information between those who know to use the media
and those who do not. We need to firmly establish media literacy and media ethics if we
are to prevent these problems from arising.
Keeping in view the concerns of the above mentioned researches the present
research was the first in Pakistan on similar grounds. The results of this study could
provide a guideline to the audience how to critically analyze the content of media and
keep watch of negative impacts.
Goonasekera (1993) relates the relationship between media and social
imperatives. It is possible for a third world country to adopt communication policies to
bypass early stages of industrialization and leapfrog the modern technology. He says that
Palapa was an experiment in rural development through the use of advanced
communication technologies by using a satellite based system of broadcasting and
telecommunication to link vastly scattered villages with the centre. It was considered the
most cost-efficient and quickest way of linking the 150 million people of Indonesia. The
satellite system was used to launch a development communication programme aimed at
teaching basic skills in production and marketing of rural areas-based goods to teach
family planning, improved health and hygiene to show how to protest the natural
environment and to provide general information about the world outside.
Rahim (1994) conducted a survey on the impact of cable network on television
and video viewing in Hyderabad. According to him: “Cable network introduced in India
in 1984 are new phenomenon in media as compared to video. There were about 3,460
33
cable television networks in May 1990 and over 3.3 million households in four metros
namely Bombay, Delhi, Calcutta and Madras had been cable television, with an audience
of 1.6 million. Though it does not present as wide and personal selection of programme’s
content as video but offers similar entertainment at less cost and also over come the
problem of zapping of advertisements. Hence, it is more useful for the advertiser.”
He concludes that cable subscribers are mostly from upper and middle income
groups. The average time spent on watching television is 5.36 hours per day in each
household. Out of this, 60 percent of time is spent in watching programmes on cable and
40 percent on watching Door Darshan. More females watch entertainment programmes
on television. Although there is no significant variation of choice regarding news on DD
and cable television but it is preferred for entertainment programmes and movies.”
A research on the impact of cable television on women at a very basic level in
terms of activities, time management and interaction with family members and the
outside world revealed that 16 out of 30 women spent over 4 hours a day watching
cable television and 10 of them spent 2 to 3 hours a day (Eashwer, 1994). The
researcher reported that the major activities affected are:
· Exposure to other media and reading habits
· Interaction with children, husband, other family members, friends and neighbours
· Cooking and other household work
Women see two Indian feature films a day on cable television which pushes them
to the world of fantasy and promotes violence.
The above mentioned studies performed in South East Asia have not been
conducted in Pakistan. This study ascertains if the similar effects and viewer-ship patterns
are present in Pakistan or if there is a deviation.
Sen (1993) narrates that in today’s world with fibre optics and satellites, it is hard
to isolate one self from sounds and images from the west but no established and
traditional and cultural entity wants to be overwhelmed and dominated by the
accoutrements of another alien culture. If the global culture means domination of one
over the other or replacing one by the other, then there is less scope of development of a
truly global culture which could include interaction, assimilation, exchange of ideas,
artistic and scientific cross fertilization.
He concludes that there is no clear evidence of a global culture at present. On the
contrary, evidence suggests that the third world people are changing more to their own
34
music, art, language and customers. Prevalence of the American pop culture is more
apparent in urban areas and among the elite of the third world countries but still the
majority is in rural areas. The consumption of American products will more likely
continue to expand the gap between the rich and the poor urban and the rural cultures.
Shariffadeen (1995) looks at some of the major economic, cultural and social
issues faced by developing countries arising from new technology in his study. He
concludes that the new communication era should not be perceived as a purely
technological phenomenon. Its ultimate impact is social and cultural, although
technological advancement is the key enabler. This new era invites a change in social and
cultural patterns. At individual level, it raises the importance of mental and intellectual
ability. For society at large, it engenders new forms of social organizations. Economic
restriction will result from information intensification in production and delivery of goods
and services.
A strategic approach involving full mobilization of critical resources is suggested
as being the key to a higher level of achievements. Finally, it is suggested that developing
nations promote a learning culture among their people in order to gain foothold in the
emerging information based economy.
The above mentioned studies target the scope and impact of cable television on
education and information based economy. In this study the researcher measured the
impact of cable television on family and social interaction, social role, domestic and other
activities of women in Pakistan. This study gave a new scope and dimension to
researchers in other countries.
The role of new information/communication technologies (NICT) in the field of
education is examined by Karnik (1995). Her study revealed that NICT facilitate the
extension and outreach of education. She says that increasing privatisation and
commercialisation of education is an evident trend worldwide. To this, technology has
added a new dimension: globalization through trans-national satellite broadcast of
distance education programmes. Though this is just the beginning but this trend is likely
to continue. The implications and effects of this trend, especially for developing
countries, need to be carefully examined. There are also numerous issues about cultural
diversity versus homogeneity that need consideration but still NICT throw open a vast
field of opportunities in the education sector.
As recommended by Karnik the need to address impacts on cultural issues caused
by media was felt by researcher and this study aspired to fill that gap in this field with in
35
Pakistan. Furthermore, new issues identified regarding cultural diversity and national
identity would provide thought provoking direction to the future researches.
Skinner (1984) found that those who watch more US programmes had a more
positive image of the US and a less favourable image of Trinidad. Tsai (1970) in a study
among Taiwanese children who watch television found that they favoured elements of
American culture and have a less favourable attitude towards their own culture than their
non-viewing counterparts. Similarly, Babi (1990) in Cameroon concluded that youth
would have a favourable attitude towards elements of foreign culture and a strong
preference for locally produced programmes. Youth experienced the influence of
television on the way they dress up. His study reports the theory that television’s impact
would be pervasive in some aspects as well as stimulate changes in others.
There has been a slight influx of state-run Soviet television appearing on
American cable television. Three experiments were conducted on US viewers to see the
change in the image of the Soviet Union (Lavin, 1991). The results of all the studies
indicated that those who watch two sessions of indigenous Soviet television formulated a
significantly more positive opinion of Soviet Union than those who did not see the
programmes. The intrusting finding here is that viewers incorporate effective qualities
from televised images and generalize these evaluations to the nation that those images
depict.
Mohammad (1993) the prime minister of Malaysia is of the view that we live in
information technology age. There has been and there will continue to be an unending
explosion in the field of information technology. Today we can sit in our homes and
watch and hear whatever happens in the world. But what we see, hear and witness is
decided by media. Clearly the people, who decide what we should see and hear, hold
terrible power.
As the people who control the media control our minds and probably control the
world. And who control the powerful world media are not the national governments of
developing or developed nations but a very few people. They have an effective weapon in
the form of a worldwide television network. Today they broadcast slanted news,
tomorrow they will broadcast raw pornography to corrupt our children and destroy our
culture. They are already doing that in Europe. We can control the reception today but not
afterwards. He further says that Malaysia believes in press freedom but with
responsibility.
36
The above mentioned study concluded that impact of television is pervasive and
stimulates the changes in viewer’s lifestyle. Television is an effective tool to arouse
change in a society. The present study evaluated the type of changes occurring in viewers
(women) in Lahore - Pakistan due to the cable television.
The author of “Studying the media: An introduction” has included a chapter on
the changing media worlds in his book. Talking about the latest developments in the
fields of cable television, the author has mentioned about VCTC (viewer controlled cable
television) in US, which allows viewers to create their own schedules. Some cable
viewers in Britain were offered sports programmes where they could chose channels with
different camera angles, replays or computer-generated information as accompaniments
to their viewing of the live coverage. Viewers, listeners and readers may now exercise
choice across new, increasingly specialized narrow cat channels and services in case of
sports, movies, home lifestyle or children’s channels etc. About half a million homes now
receive cable services in Britain. The main source of income for most channels is on a
pay per view basis, advertising and sponsorship in some cases (Tim, 1994).
Some of the cable services available to viewers in Europe who are connected are
Asia Vision, The Box, Identity Television, The Landscape Channel, The Learning
Channel, The Parliamentary Channel, Super Channel, Vision Broadcasting, Performance,
The Arts Channel, Euro News etc. Also available are local channels, foreign language
channels and minority language channels etc.
Research findings of Atkin and LaRose, (1991) suggest that access viewers do not
fit the upscale information seekers profile typical of other public affairs consumers. While
better educated and heavy access viewers are nevertheless likely to be older, tired and
have lower incomes. Such research indicates, for instance, that general viewership is
higher among larger, younger and non-white families. This is clearly not the case with
access.
According to the study of Umphrey, (1991) cost was a factor in determining
whether subscribers would upgrade and maintain their level of cable service. Further,
higher monthly bills may lead to greater expectations which have an effect on a
subscribers’ ongoing evaluation of the medium along with other factors such as degree of
satisfaction with local cable operators.
As Lin and Jeffers, (1998) stated that the result seemed to meet the expectation of
the research assumptions which ascribe little demographic difference between cable
37
television adaptors and non-adaptors, as more innovative individuals tend to have
stronger need for ( and be earlier adaptors of) technology products in general.
Perse and Ferguson, (1993) pointed out that cable television was unrelated to the
benefits of television viewing. Moreover, though cable television offers greater
programme variety, other aspects of cable may be dissatisfying with management and
customer service and the repetition of programme offering especially on more expensive
pay channels.
The present study evaluated the subscription ratio of cable television among
different income earning groups and determined subscribers channel preferences in
Pakistan.
Since cable is primarily a subscription medium, its effects should be felt more on
the consumer spending side conducted by Glascock (1993). Indeed that is the case. While
overall consumer spending on mass media has increased, spending on traditional media
has decreased. The addition of cable subscription revenues change the trend for
consumer’s spending from negative to positive. It appears from this that consumer
spending has increased for cable during the 1978-1990 at the expense of spending on
traditional media. It also appears that cable has attracted further consumer spending not
previously devoted to traditional mass media.
The same kind of research study on behavioural changes entitled “The impact of
television on family life in Boston area” was conducted by Lundberg (1958). The
researcher concluded that there was no marked tendency for families to cut down on their
viewing as they became accustomed to the set. Television brings families closer in the
sense that they spend more time in each other’s presence after they acquire a television
set. However, there is very little interaction among family members when they watch
television together and the amount of time family members spend together exclusive of
television is reduced. It is, therefore, doubtful whether television brings the family
together in any psychological sense.
As compared to other activities in the same room when a programme is on, most
of the sets are located in living room, which is kept in semi-darkness when the set is on
and nearly all owners have their sets on at some time during the after-supper hours each
day. This means that reading, playing and conversing are at a minimum in the living room
of television -homes during the evening.
Many parents have difficulty in getting the children to leave the television set to
come for their meals and some have solved this problem by serving meals to the children
38
in front of the set. One-sixth of the families interviewed reported doing this every night
and half do it on occasion.
Bedtime is a fairly serious problem for parents and children living in homes that
are in possession of a television set. Such children go to bed later than children of the
same age in homes without a television set. Television interferes very little with
homework. Parents generally insist on their children’s finishing their homework before
they watch television and virtually none of the children attempts to do their studying in
the same room with the television set when some one is watching a programme. The
number of children who do home work on Sunday is somewhat smaller in television than
non- television homes, but on weekdays, television children seem to spend approximately
the same amount of time in study as non- television children of similar ages and family
background.
Children are substituting television for radio, cinema and reading to a significant
extent. Children who have television spend more time watching it than they formerly
spent with the other mass media so their total exposure to mass media has doubled. While
some television time involves a shift from other mass media to television much of it is
taken from playtime and some from helping around the house, practicing musical
instruments and other forms of activity which might be called “creative” or “productive”.
Parents who have a television set do not feel it so rather they believe it has many
advantages. First of all, they enjoy television for the entertainment value. They also find
many of the programmes educational both for themselves and for their children. But
beyond this, they find it helpful in taking care of the children. They say it keeps them
quiet, keeps them off the streets and generally keeps them from harassing their parents.
Parents very commonly use television as a “Pacifier”.
The family and social interaction patterns were studied in this research to tackle
the question of “Lundberg” that “television is bringing the families together but is it
bringing them together only physically or is the closeness psychological as well?”
Sinebare (1997) analyses the programmes advertised by Australian Broadcasting
Commission Television (ABCTV) to see which culture was being promoted for each and
every individual programme and how relevant these programmes were to Papua New
Guinea.
He concludes that majority who lives in urban area are virtually in undated with
information, which is culturally irrelevant to Papua New Guinea audience. The
expectations promoted on television are beyond their economic means and the values and
39
lifestyles portrayed contradict and conflict with those of their own culture. He does
suggest that there is a new class of people gradually being homogenized in Papua New
Guinea who are mentally Anglo-American or Australian and ethnically Papua New
Guinean (cited in Vijayalakshmi, 2005).
William Crawky and David Page (Linter 2001, web) stated that the satellite
television channels are using/projecting local languages in showing local network beam
entertainment, news and sports and introducing even a new kind of lingua franca which
has become to be known as Hinglish, a mixture of English and Hindi that reflects
everyday speech of many educated people in the Subcontinent (cited in Shahbaz, 2004:
85). In current study the researcher wanted to assess the impact foreign languages on
local language in Pakistan due to cable television.
Likewise Erick (1972) is also of this view that the information that the modern
man receives pass through “Social Filter” creation moral values and facts pass through
that filter. They are imposed in the individual in an exaggerated form changing the
behaviour with this propaganda machine. People act as obedient servants.
Wilson also agrees with the view that television can change the viewer’s attitudes
and orientation. In his book “Youth culture and universities” which was written in the
background of youth disturbances worldwide, he emphasized the influence of television
on moulding and restructuring their attitude (cited in Vijayalakshmi, 2005: 41).
Bryanc (1970) found that average individual in Britain today gives more time to
mass communication in particular to television than to general reading or part time
education. Personal interests and relationships are thus fed up with what media provides
and it is altogether acceptable that the attitude of mass media should be taken in with
materials.
Understanding the effects of television on the human behaviour is one of the most
different but also one of the most important problems faced by the social science
community today Levy (1982). Many scholars and commentators have views about the
“tube’s” impact. Comparatively few have been able to demonstrate its effects in
scientifically acceptable fashion.
In a chapter titled “Living with television” the author presented a quick but
thorough discussion of the place when they watch television, the place of television
viewing in the total leisure time and the way it displaces other activities. It also
considered in another chapter, television as a learning experience, television as an agent
40
of socialization and television’s pro-social impact. In short, television and human
communication is targeted by him.
Belson. W. (1961) stated that television has affected the reading habits and
changed the routine of viewers. In his survey he concluded:
· There is, however, a pattern of changes where these are increased they tend to be
among the paper of popular press where decreases among the more serious papers.
· Television appears to stimulate the reading items that deal with television
programmes.
In his book “Four arguments for the elimination of television”, Mender, J. (1965)
wrote that if you could somehow drop all preconceptions of television and read this list.
Then people were describing some instruments you had never seen yourself. I think the
picture you would obtain is of machines that control the people who view it. It is not
unlike alien operated influencing machine of the psychopathic fantasy.
· I feel hypnotized when I watch television
· Television soaks energy
· I feel it like a vegetable when I am stuck at the tube
· Television spaces me out
· Television is an addiction and I am an addict
· My kids look like zombies when they are watching television
· Television is destroying my mind
· It is making people stupid
· Television is turning my mind to a different arena
· My children walk around when they are in a dream because of it
It may give exaggeration but the author collected opinion through the research
survey and opinions have supported the scholars who firmly believe in the effect of
television.
Similarly Choukas (1965) in his thesis describes the propaganda spread by media
have a wide effect over a society and its result can be seen easily. “Propaganda is an art of
making people what they would not do if they were in possession of all the facts in
situation”.
A meta analysis on the impact of foreign television on domestic audience
conducted by Elasmar and John (1997). The study includes 27 studies from 21 different
countries. The meta- analysis revealed weak positive correlation between exposure to
41
foreign television and viewer’s knowledge, attitude, beliefs, values and behaviours.
Exposure to foreign television increases the purchase of foreign products, especially
clothing and other consumer products. Though the size of increase is small because
foreign television accounts for only 5 percent of variation in foreign products purchasing
but exposure to foreign television increases audience’s knowledge about the country
originating the messages.
Hagiwara (1999) attempted to ascertain whether the values, attitudes and the
styles of behaviour imparted by global television were at variance with the values and
outlook of the countries receiving such programmes. The thesis of medical/cultural
imperialism stipulates that the values portrayed in global television have deleterious
effect on local cultures. The audience of the higher societies were therefore asked if they
believe that global television had a negative impact on themselves or their cultures.
However, when they ere asked if western programmes corrupted their cultures,
just about one-third or less than one-third of respondents in India (22 percent), Malaysia
(37 percent) and the Philippines (34 percent) said ‘yes’. The majority of the respondents
answered ‘no’ or ‘neutral’. When the respondents were further asked whether western
programmes adversely affecting their way of living, even less confirmation was found.
The above findings show that only a minority of Asian audiences perceived any negative
impact on their culture, way of living, children and local television production. On the
other hand, more Asian audience valued the benefits of global television. One-third (34
percent) of Indian, 41 percent of Malaysian and 72 percent of Hong Kong respondents
considered that global television could enrich their culture. Across all the five societies,
more than two-third of respondents agreed that global television can help them
understand other cultures and over 80 percent agreed that it could enrich their knowledge.
Kenny (1983) in its edited book: “Cable for Information Delivery”, talked about
using cable for information delivery. It deals with the non-entertainment uses of the cable
television only. The book takes an optimistic view of cable it has come of age at last and
its many early promises seems about to be fulfilled.
Similarly Camella (2007) studied Para-social relationships in female college
student soap opera viewers today. This study is based on media impact data was collected
through a questionnaire which was given to 20 females in Pinney Hall at Western
Connecticut State University and was then compared to each other depending upon the
number of episodes watched. This study concentrated on two main questions regarding
this type of communication; what is para-social interaction and is it affected by the
42
amount of time spent watching? For this study Camella applied the cultivation theory
which developed largely by George Gerbner and states that the more television watched
the more you are likely to obtain distorted views of life (Wood, 2000, p. 252) and Altman
and Taylor (1973) who hypothesized that the more time people spend watching and
involving themselves the more they become more intimate with the media personnel.
Therefore, viewers who have watched a personality consistently over time may perceive a
sense of intimacy evolving from their expectations of increased intimacy in the past
interpersonal experiences (Rubin, Perse, Powell, 1985, p.156).
The answers and results found agreements with recent studies that have been done
on these types of relationships. The final outcome was the more as a student watched the
higher degree of involvement occurred in this type of relationship. Theorists have claimed
that these relationships can in some cases be life changing and personality moulding, but
definitely life impacting. More importantly, it appears that they can occur and one may
not even realize it. Ultimately, it becomes clear that television is one of today's most
dynamic media vehicles touching more people than most other communication vehicles.
Eastman (1984) devotes a separate part to cable television, holding chapters on the
programming of cable systems, basic cable networks, premium services and local
origination in the book “Broadcast / Cable Programming”. It includes a chapter on
programmes and audience research covering the procedures and vocabulary of ratings or
analysis for broadcasting and cable. It also presents the group ownership chapter into
radio and cable to show the rule that multiple system owners are now having on cable
programming.
The trance of entertainment through television channels is so great that no
common man irrespective of his age, sex and education can claim immunity from it. The
entire study of mass communication is based on the premises that the media has
significant effect in every society. Yet there is little agreement on the nature and extent of
these assumed effects. He argues that heir affects take various forms. We choose what
movies are based on what we see in advertisement or in newspaper. We dress in
accordance to the weather broadcasts that means our buying habits are shaped through
media (Mcquail, 2002, p. 8).
Media has occupied a prominent place in our daily lives, providing stuff from
which we form our identities, construct meaning and organize our very existence. Today,
media service is the nervous system of modern society. Electronic media, particularly
television, is the most important invention in the communication technology. Teachers
43
teach, government governs and religious leaders preach but media totally changes the
lifestyle of people.
Whetmore (1988) discusses cable television in a chapter titled “New technologies
and the future of mass communication” of his book “Mediamerica”. It briefly introduces
cable television highlights its channels. It gives an account of the need and choices of the
subscribers. This book also talks about impact of cable network. Similarly Lebow (1995)
talks about cable television in the chapter titled ‘Communication via space’ in the book
“Information highways and byways”. It gives brief history of cable television or CATV
(Community Antenna Television). The writer discusses the relationship between satellite
and cable television. He also describes the advantages and uses of cable television. The
writer explains that further advancement in the cable network system is expected in near
future.
James (1988) covers a chapter on ‘The information society: video, cable and
satellite’ in his book, “Power without responsibility”. The writer asks whether we should
side firmly with the cultural pessimist against the neophiliacs. The answer is that much
depends on the behaviour of broadcasters and programme makers and, more particularly,
governments in the face of technological advance. Both neophiliacs and cultural
pessimists emphasize the power of new technologies. Machines and inventions are not
inherently powerful. Now is the use to which they are put inevitable. While the new
technology brings with it many dangers and some opportunities, its impact will depend
crucially and especially in the early years on how it is managed.
Herman (1997) traces the emergence of global media system and chronicles the
political, economic and technological factors in his book “The Global Media”. It also
reviews some of the local and national responses to the spread of a global media system.
Its purpose is to contribute to an understanding of the economic and political dynamics on
growth and the effects of the globalization of media while pointing up alternatively and
arguably more democratic media structures and policies.
2.2 National Studies on Television/Cable Television
Cable television is relatively a new medium in Pakistan but people (although not in
majority) were already exposed to satellite channels since 1980s through dish antenna.
Therefore, the research on satellite channels was started in 1990s in various universities
which have been thoroughly reviewed by the researcher before working on this study.
These studies were unpublished and master’s level research but reviewed and referred
44
because the researcher could hardly find any published work on cable television in
Pakistan.
Fatima (2000) in her thesis “Effects of satellite channels (Zee TV) on Lahore
middle class” concluded that Zee TV is gaining popularity over Ptv and other channels
among middle class and our social values are changing slowly and steadily. She said that
her research proved that it might be difficult to invade a new concept or diffuse new
traditions in a society, but a systemic and regular propaganda can bring change in
thoughts and beliefs of the public.
Ali (2001) conducted a study on “Impact of satellite television channels on the
people living in Lahore”. The emphasis of the said research was to see whether the lives
of people living in Lahore were under the influence of satellite television channels. The
researcher made the following conclusions:
· The socio-cultural and religious thinking of the people was under the influence of
foreign cultural values
· Satellite channels were influencing the language, fashion, food, architect and
social behaviour of the viewers
· There was an impact of the satellite channels on the style of living of the people
living in Lahore
· Pakistani mass media was under the influence of satellite programming
· Satellite channels were intermingling the eastern and western cultures resulting in
the formation of an “International Culture”
Likewise conducted research on the opinion of social science students of the
University of the Punjab about television programmes in Pakistan. The universe of the
study comprised 800 social science students of the University of the Punjab.
Questionnaire was used for data collection. The sample was one-fourth of the whole. The
purpose of the study was to discover the opinion of the social science students of the
university about the television programmes, including the impact of these programmes on
the people’s standard of living and their attitude and behaviour towards this media. The
researcher after a careful study of all the data and its interpretation concluded that
systematic television should bring a change in our traditional values and social norms and
in introducing and reinforcing certain new trends.
The satellite channels are at the fingertips of everyone; channel surfing has now
become a favourite hobby. The trend of commercialisation has not only injected into the
45
audience, but on cultural grounds. They have become defenceless too. Advertisements
presented through satellite television channels are not only the tools of marketing but they
have become sources of entertainment for the viewers. Most of the people turn towards
foreign channels, where the cultures of foreign countries are shown in a very alluring and
glamorous manner.
Therefore, if we look around, we will see more faces wearing makeup, more girls
wearing fashionable clothes, more stylish hair cuts, and more boys with long hair fond of
motorcycling, more teenagers fond of burgers, coke and hotel. Thus, we can say that the
effect of satellite television channels on its audience is not simply to the extent that it has
left very little time for family get together but it is introducing new trends, behaviours,
attitudes and standards for modern life as well. So we can conclude that because of its
interest-oriented programmes, satellite television channels have greatly and deeply
affected the society.
In 1987 Yasmin of the Sociology Department of the University of the Punjab
conducted her thesis research on “The Impact of television on style of living”. Samples
were taken of housewives from Allama Iqbal Town, Model Town, New Muslin Town and
Garden Town. But the finding was that these two attributes i.e. exposure to television and
change in style of living are negatively correlated, as the value was Z=0.03.
A study conducted by Saleem (1995) “Cultural Imperialism: A case study of the
impact of dish antenna on Pakistani society” concluded that dish antenna’s programmes
are successfully influencing the socio-cultural and religious beliefs and values of
Pakistani viewers. An alarming issue came to light that projection of other cultures and
values has compelled 36 per cent respondents from all to think that Islam is a
conservative religion and they appreciated socio-economic and religious values of
western societies.
On the contrary Butt, S. (2005) pointed out in his research the perspective of
analyzing the projection of Hindu religion in Star Plus soap operas, conclusively shows
not only total percentage of this projection but also depicts it separately on
abovementioned units of analysis that how much projection is given according to point
scale of need, support, extra projection and extra informative projection. The researcher
found that the sample soap operas directly and indirectly are giving maximum coverage
to Hindu religion through the projection of names of gods and goddesses, religious
verses, religious words and history, different scenes in religious background, sounds and
prayers. Some of the religious scenes are the requirement of the story but most of the time
46
their projection is unnecessary. He included most famous for their programmes and if
they are projecting Hindu religion with such percentage then projection of Hindu religion
will affect their viewers. Because the viewership of these soap operas is not the
countrywide but it is worldwide.
The researcher employed content analysis research methodology in this study to
check the projection of Hindu religion in Star Plus soap opera. For this purpose
quantitative analysis has been opted to analyze the contents of soap opera of Star Plus
channel. The researcher also gave a future agenda for other researchers in which he
included that first of all this study should be strengthened as an effect or impact study to
check the effects of this projection on Pakistani Muslims especially on children and
youth. Further, one more research study can be conducted on the behaviours of users and
non-users of cable television after this effect study.
Shahbaz Z, (2004) emphasizes on the influence or impact of daily night
transmission of Star Plus family dramas on social and cultural values and norms of
Pakistani youth of middle class. The survey research concludes that the socio-cultural
thinking of Pakistani youth is under the foreign cultural values through these Star Plus
dramas. They are also affecting the language, fashion food and architect, social behaviour
and daily life style of Pakistani society. These dramas have increased the generation gap.
And through these dramas, Pakistani youths have become more money oriented. They
have created impact on the ‘lifestyle’ of middle class Pakistani youth and influenced the
thoughts of modernist and traditionalist thinkers. Star Plus is actually intermingling the
eastern and western culture resulting in the formation of an ‘International Culture’ and
promoting more liberalism and modernism in Pakistani society and youth.
They have impact on social interactions and on norms and values of youngsters
and have increased the desires, demands and idealism in Pakistani youth. These Star Plus
dramas have frequent and intensive negative impact on Pakistani youth’s social and
cultural norms and values.
Similarly Tariq (2004) conducted a study on “Invasion of Indian culture through
movies”. This study evaluated the influence of Indian movies on marriage
traditions/celebrations in high class of Lahore, Pakistan. The sample size of this study
was 100 respondents from Defence, Lahore .Findings of the study revealed that majority
of the respondents (87.9 percent) watched Indian and English movies on cable television.
92.2 percent respondents were agreed that Indian movies show attractive marriage
traditions, hairstyles, colours, makeup, dresses, jewellery and lifestyles. Four–fifth of the
47
respondents agreed that marriage functions in high class were following the patterns
shown in Indian movies. Three–fourth of the respondents admitted that dress of bride and
bridegroom and their parents were influenced by Indian movies. Similarly, jewellery
makeup and hairstyle of bride and stage decoration also had been changed by Indian
movies. Indian dances and songs were played during the marriage ceremony. Marriage
expenditures and traditions in Pakistan were influenced by Indian movies.
According to the thesis report of Khalid (2001) “66 percent respondents now got
chance in their thoughts about world affairs, 84 percent began to eat foreign dishes of
food in daily life, and 46 percent chose dresses of foreign style and 50 percent of
respondents felt change in their routine”.
The study also revealed that 64 percent of the respondents were using Hindi words
whereas 34 percent were using phrases on different occasions. In some way, 11 percent
respondents were fascinated by foreign cultural and social norms and values as compare
to local channels. This study had made it crystal clear that “cable television channel Star
Plus had influenced social and cultural norms and values of Pakistani youth.” Fantasy
which was showed in these channels was the main reason to attract the students and
Pakistani new generation.
Following are the researchers that had been produced at Bahauddin Zakariya
University, Multan, with reference to television.
Malik (2003) carried out work on “the impact of cable television transmission on
the residents of Multan”. She concludes it is obvious that the viewers who spend time
watching cable television transmission, their routine and activities are affected. Interindividual
communication has decreased. Results of the survey indicated that powerful
culture traditions of alien culture, particularly Indian culture, are getting popularity due to
cable television transmission. Moreover, this transmission is promoting the modern way
of life.
Qurat-ul-Ain (1998) conducted a study on “Cultural Invasion: An analysis of
Ptv’s entertainment programmes and its effects on youth” that concluded that almost
every Ptv programme contains traits/elements of foreign culture. It has been observed that
audience with different media exposure have different effects of these foreign cultural
contents. It has been seen that higher education level helps create more effects while
those with low level receive more effects.
Impact of STN dramas on the residents of Multan by Rubia Ehsan (1998)
concluded that STN’s dramas were not only influencing the citizens of Multan but they
48
were also becoming the cause of inferiority complex and class conflict among people.
Because of it people were developing materialistic tendency. People were developing the
habit of show-off. The dramas of STN were putting negative impact on the social and
moral consideration of people.
The effect of Ptv dramas on the wedding ceremonies and Islamic thoughts by
Ahtesham (1998) proved that in dramas of Ptv the marriage ceremonies which were
shown were not in accordance with our Islamic traditions. Islam teaches simplicity. In the
dramas of Ptv there was unlimited glamour and those dramas were playing an important
role in putting the people in psychological conflicts.
The effect of dish antenna on Ptv dramas by Noreen Shafiq (1995) concluded that
the number of private satellite channels was increasing. Ptv was not producing new and
interesting programmes for the public. The standard of programmes was falling. With the
arrival of dish antenna people liked to watch Zee TV and enjoyed BBC. Now there were
ten channels in Urdu language at the same time so one could judge the position of Ptv.
Shaikh (2007) conducted research on satellite television and social change in
Pakistan: A case study of rural Sindh. This study determined the degree of satellite
television, people’s access to other medium of mass communication, their favourite
channels, programmes, and their viewing time. It also explored is it bringing changes in
cuisine, culinary practices, attire, house decor and architecture, social customs,
celebration of festivals, music traditions, approach to education, family system, clan and
tribal system and comprehension of language(s) other than the mother tongue. The
research concludes that changes are occurring in all the parameters except education
approach.
2.3 Studies on Women
During the past 35 years, scholars have shown an increasing interest to study media and
women but the main focus remained studying and identifying the media images of
women. International agencies like UNESCO have sponsored researchers on the portrayal
of women in the media of developed and developing nations e.g. Ceulemans, M. and
Frauconnier, G. (1979), Gallagher (1981).
Scholars studying the Indian society so far have produced more studies on the
representation of women in media than scholars studying Pakistan or any other South
Asian country. Joshi (1986) has surveyed the participation of women in decision making
at Indian television (Door Darshan). Krishnaswamy’s (1986) survey of women viewers in
49
Madras city indicates the superficiality of women’s programmes. Agarwal (1993)
observed besides representing a pan-Indian character of Indian women (cited in Saleem,
M. 2004, p. 52).
Women related studies that are conducted in Pakistan also deal with the images of
women in media e.g. Pervez (1980), Suleman (1990), Kumar. Noman and Pervez (1998).
Saleem (2004) conducted a study on “Portrayal of women in Ptv drama: A case study of
drug addiction.” Munir (2003) conducted a study on “Portrayal of women in Disney’s
animated movies: The case of the white and coloured women”.
In the light of the above listed studies it is concluded that various researchers have
approached the viewers in different ways, reflecting different conceptualizations about
television and cable television. The extensive research done by researchers around the
globe has opened up a number of important areas of inquiry for future studies. The
researcher had selected the variables for personal study after reviewing this massive
literature.
This study tried to address the specific issues like change in women’s life through
cable television particularly impact on domestic and other activities, family and social
interaction patterns, appearance and style, cultural practices (food, language, dress,
traditions and religion), domestic and personal expenditure and the role of Pakistani
women in society. The new media environment accompanied by cable television provides
a context for examining these issues. Pakistani women observe different values and life
patterns from the other nations and a study to gauge the effects of the changed
environment seemed imperative.
After having gone through the available literature, the researcher has observed that
extensive research is being done in the world on viewing patterns and effects of cable
television. In Pakistan, this was a relatively new topic and only very few academic
institutions have conducted studies on issues of cable television. The studies which
targeted “women and media”, focused on portrayal and images of women and none of
them have explored “impact of media on women.” Therefore, with reference to Pakistan
this was the first comprehensive study targeting “effects of cable television on women.”
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CHAPTER 3
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
This study has analysed “Effects of Cable Television in Pakistan”. The core purpose of
this study was to dig out the influence of foreign channels, particularly Indian and
western, on the life patterns of female viewers. As a communication technology, cable
television has a great acceptance and is being used extensively in Pakistan. Cable
television viewership is no more restricted to the upper and upper-middle class of
Pakistan as it used to be a few years back.
Being inexpensive and easy to access, cable television spread rapidly in Pakistan.
It has become one of the common household commodities. Therefore, this study
attempted to understand whether demography influenced the viewership patterns of
respondents or not. Kaye (2000) states “A good theory helps predict what will happen in
future by giving practical insight into how the phenomenon being studied works”. New
communication theories that explain uses of new technologies are surely needed. As the
new century progresses, the continual challenge for communication theorists will be to
catch up and keep up (Thompson & Bryant, 2002). There was a need of such theories that
could explain the uses and consequences of this new media technology in Pakistan.
Cable television provides a variety of local and foreign channels and helps people
in selecting programmes according to their taste and choice. Therefore, the first part of
this study explored respondents preferred channels and kinds of programmes, reasons for
watching cable television, preferred time of watching and control over the remote. It
justified the application of ‘Uses and Gratification Theory’. This theory identifies cable
television consumption patterns according to needs and satisfaction of targeted class. The
gratification factor leads to the exposure of channels/programmes which in turn can
generate effects.
Main part of the present research comes under the effect tradition. It demands
discussion on theories based on observational learning and information processing
emphasize lasting effects of exposure to media contents. Thus, the study also applies
‘Cultivation Theory’ in terms of effect (which can be small, gradual, indirect but
cumulative and significant) through exposure (depending upon heavy and light
viewership of cable television) and ‘Social Learning Theory’ which says that viewers
attend and learn from models which are attractive, powerful, rewarding and similar to
themselves. They do not usually act immediately on what they learn from television.
51
Instead, they store such knowledge to be used when their own circumstances elicit it.
Hence, the framework of this research is based on the set of three theories i.e. Uses and
Gratification Theory, Cultivation Theory and Social Learning Theory. These theories are
discussed below in relation with the present study in brief.
3.1 Uses and Gratification
Utility Theory, often known as the “Uses and Gratifications Approach”, offers another
way of explaining why people expose themselves to some communications and not others
(the preferred channels/programmes); why they perceive a fraction of these to which they
are exposed and why they remember –correctly or incorrectly-- only some of these
(effects on lingo). Blumler and Katz’s Uses and Gratification Theory suggest that media
users play an active role in choosing and using media. Users take an active part in the
communication process and are goal-oriented in their media usage. Theorists say that
media users seek out source that best fulfills their needs. Uses and Gratifications Theory
assumes that users have alternate choices to satisfy their needs (Griffin, 2000). Focus of
this theory is that viewers attend, perceive and remember information that is pleasurable
or that will in some way help satisfy their needs. Therefore, this research probed into
which cable television channels and programmes are preferred by the targeted
audience and which of their needs are satisfied by viewing them.
The idea of this study was to look for reasons for the evident appeal of media and
various types of contents by asking the audience what they think, feel and appreciate on
the basis of their personal media usage. The approach was described by Klapper (1960) as
a “functional orientation” which could account for the appeal of “escapist” media content.
He named simple functions of media as providing relaxation, stimulating the imagination,
providing vicarious interactions and providing a common ground for social intercourse.
Variation in motives for attending to media was also studied as variables in effect
research (Bulmer and McQuail, 1968).
Uses and Gratifications Theory takes a more humanistic approach to looking at
the media usage. Blumler and Katz believe that there is not merely one way that the
populace uses media. Instead, they believe there are as many reasons for using media as
there are media users. According to the theory, media consumers have a free will to
decide how they will use the media and how it will affect them. Blumler and Katz believe
that media consumers can choose the influence media has on them as well as the idea that
users choose media alternatives merely as a mean. Uses and Gratifications Theory is the
52
optimist’s view of media. The theory takes out the possibility that media can have an
unconscious influence on our lives and how we view the world. The idea that we simply
use media to satisfy a given need does not seem to fully recognize the power of media in
today’s society. (West, R., and Turner, L. H, 2000: 332).
3.1.1 Uses and Effects Model
Communication scholars have developed several different models that attempt to explain
individual level media uses and effects, which is the principal focus of uses and
gratification research. These include the Transaction Model (McLeod and Becker, 1974),
the Gratification Seeking and Audience Activity Model (Rubin, A.and Perse, 1987), the
Expectancy Value Model (Palmgreen and Rayburn, 1982) and the Uses and Dependency
Model (Rubin, and Windahl, 1986).
3.1.2 Uses and Dependency Model
Research has shown that dependency on a medium is the result of two major factors:
viewer motives for obtaining gratifications and the availability of viewing alternatives.
Each of these factors may be affected by any number of social or psychological
characteristics. For example a person with poor health and limited mobility would be
more likely to be dependent upon a medium such as television for entertainment and
diversion than a healthy person who enjoys many different activities. Further, a person
with limited mobility would be more likely to become dependent upon a medium such as
television if he/she did not have access to other media options such as personal computer,
VCR, computer games, etc at his/her home.
The Uses and Dependency Model (Rubin, A. and Windahl, 1986) proposes that
certain elements in media system (e.g. system itself, structure of society and individual
differences that result in highly personal motives) cause people to use and depend upon
media. Dependency upon media may lead to effect in itself. For example, attitude change
might occur and thus affect other elements in the model.
The greater the dependency upon a medium the greater the likelihood that medium
will have effects upon the viewer. M. M. Miller and S. D. Reese (1982) studied political
effects and found that these (effects) were more likely to occur among those who relied
more upon the medium rather than those who did not rely upon it.
Finn, S. (1992) described the motives for media use as falling under one of the
two headings: proactive or passive. Examples of proactive media use and watching a
particular television programme in order to learn more about a specific subject of interest,
53
watching a certain movie for the purpose of being entertained or using internet for
information for a project at school or work. In other words, media user actively seeks
something from media based upon his/her wishes, needs and motives. As the name
suggests, passive motives describe the usage of media in a lackadaisical (passive) sense.
For example, sometimes we turn on the television simply because it is there just to “see
what’s on”. We are not actively seeking information, entertainment or anything in
particular. This does not mean that we will not be entertained or learn something we very
well might. It only suggests that we did not begin the viewing experience with a particular
proactive motive in mind.
Most recent activity in the area of Uses and Gratification Theory had examined
the motives behind the media usage. In other words, researchers have sought to find out
why people watch television programmes or why they are influenced by some
commercials but not by others. Instead, focusing on what media do to peoples, these
studies question: what do people do with media (Klapper, 1963; Rubin, 1994). K. E.
Rosengren, and Windahl, S. (1972) were among the first to suggest that media uses and
effects should be linked. Research should ask what effects particular gratification may
have or what effects particular uses of media may have. They found that people depend
upon the media to fulfil certain needs such as vicarious experience and escapism or
involvement or interaction.
Other researchers have also suggested that a synthesis of the two research realms
would be logical and beneficial. These research domains are similar in that each examines
the consequences of mass communication from an individual or societal level, changes in
attitudes, perception or behaviour.
Since the mid-1970, research has provided greater understanding of the uses and
effects of mass media. In answer to criticisms regarding lack of uniformity, uses and
effects researchers have adopted similar measures for viewers’ motives. Based upon the
work by B. S. Greenberg (1974) and Rubin (1979), most uses and gratification research
now recognizes the following motives for media use among audience members: learning,
habit, companionship, arousal, relaxation, escapism or a way to pastime (Rubin, 1994).
Studies by Greenberg and Rubin produced similar results. Both found, for example, the
motives for viewing changed with person’s age. Most habitual viewers liked watching
comedies rather than news bulletins. Most viewers seeking excitement tended to watch
action/adventure programmes.
54
3.2 Cultivation Theory
This study has used Cultivation Theory by George Gerbner as a guide in exploring the
consequences/effects. Under guidance of this theory, this study may be able to emerge as
a new theory. Essentially, the theory states that heavy exposure to mass media namely
television creates and cultivates attitudes more consistent with a media conjured version
of reality than with what actual reality is. The Cultivation Theory asserts that heavy
viewers' attitudes are cultivated primarily by what they watch on television. Gerbner
views this television world as "not a window on or reflection of the world, but a world in
itself" (McQuail, 1993: 100). Cultivation Theory, in its most basic form, suggests that
television is responsible for shaping or ‘cultivating’ viewers’ conceptions of social reality.
The combined effect of massive television exposure by viewers over time subtly shapes
the perception of social reality for individuals and, ultimately, for our culture as a whole.
Thus, cultivation research is in the effects tradition.
Cultivation theorists argue that television has long-term effects which are small,
gradual, indirect but cumulative and significant. They emphasize the effects of television
viewing on attitude rather than the behaviour of viewers. Heavy watching of television is
seen as ‘cultivating’ attitudes which are more consistent with the world of television
programmes than with the everyday world. Cultivation theorists are best known for their
study of television and viewers and, in particular, for a focus on the topic of violence.
However, some studies have also considered other mass media from this perspective and
have dealt with topics such as gender roles, age groups, ethnic groups and political
attitudes.
George Gerbner stands as the pioneer of the Cultivation Theory. He begins
developing cultivation as a structural piece for the long term examination of public
messages in media influence and understanding. Gerbner clarifies that his objectives are
not with “information, education, persuasion, and the like, or with any kind of direct
communication effect”. More accurately, his concern remains with “the collective context
within which, and in response to which, different individuals and group selections and
interpretations of messages take place”. Nonetheless, Gerbner’s work presents a Social
Psychology Theory on communication effect on persuasion as related mass media. He
argues that the mass media cultivate attitudes and values which are already present in
culture. Media maintains and propagates these values amongst members of a culture, thus
binding it together. The Cultivation Theory got its start with the cultivation hypothesis,
55
created by George Gerbner, which attempts to understand how "heavy exposure to
cultural imagery will shape a viewer's concept of reality" (Pierce, 2007).
Gerbner argues that television has become the central cultural arm of the
American society. “Television set has become a key member of the family, the one who
tells most of the stories most of the time.” Gerbner and his associates (Gerbner, Gross,
Morgan and Signorielli, 1994) have written that there are two types of television viewers:
heavy and light viewers.
For heavy viewers, television virtually monopolises and subsumes other sources
of information, ideas and consciousness. Gerbner says that the effect of all this exposure
to the same messages produces what he calls cultivation or the teaching of a common
worldview, common roles and common values. Gerbner presents research supporting
“Cultivation Theory” that is based on comparison between heavy and light television
viewers. Gerbner analysed answers to question posted in surveys and found that heavy
and light television viewers typically give different answers. Further, heavy television
viewers often give answers that are closer to the way the world is portrayed on television.
3.2.1 Conceptual Model of Cultivation Theory
Figure 3.1: Model of Cultivation Theory
Source: Hawkins and Pingree (1983)
Cultivation theorists argue that heavy viewing leads viewers (even among high
educational/high income groups) to have more homogeneous or convergent opinions then
light viewers (who tend to have more heterogeneous or divergent opinion). The
cultivation effect of television viewing is one of the ‘levelling’ or ‘homogenizing’
opinion. Gross considered that 'television is a cultural arm of the established industrial
Television
Viewing
Incidental
Information
Social
Reality
Inference Skills,
social structures,
other experiences
(Learning) (Construction)
Capacity,
focusing
strategies,
attention,
involveme
nt
56
order and as such serves primarily to maintain, stabilize and reinforce rather than to alter,
threaten or weaken conventional beliefs and behaviours' (Boyd, Barrett, Braham, and
Peter B 1987: 100).
Cultivation research looks at the mass media as a socializing agent and
investigates whether television viewers come to believe the television version of reality
the more they watch it. Gerbner and his colleagues contend that television drama has a
small but significant influence on the attitudes, beliefs and judgments of viewers
concerning the social world. The focus is on ‘heavy viewers’. People who watch a lot of
television are likely to be more influenced by the ways in which the world is framed by
television programmes than the individuals who watch less television programmes,
especially regarding topics of which the viewer has little first-hand experience. Light
viewers may have more sources of information than the heavy viewers. Judith van Evra
argues that by virtue of inexperience, young viewers may depend on television for
information more than other viewers do (Evra, V, 1990, p. 167). Although Hawkins and
Pingree argue that some children may not experience a cultivation effect at all where they
do not understand motives or consequences (cited by Evra, ibid.). It may be due to the
fact that lone viewers are more open to a cultivation effect than those who view with
others (Evra, 1990: 171).
Cultivation theorists are best known for their study of television and viewers and
in particular for a focus on the topic of violence. However, some studies have also
considered other mass media from this perspective and have dealt with topics such as
gender roles, age groups, ethnic groups and political attitudes. A study of American
college students found that heavy soap opera viewers were more likely than light viewers
to over-estimate the number of real-life married people who had affairs or who had been
divorced and the number of women who had abortions (Wimmer and Dominick, 1993:
512).
Gerbner reported evidence for 'resonance' a 'double dose' effect which may boost
cultivation. This is held to occur when viewer’s everyday life experiences are congruent
with those depicted in the television world. For instance, since on television women are
most likely to be victims of crime, women heavy viewers are influenced by the usual
heavy viewer mainstreaming effect but are also led to feel especially fearful for
themselves as women. The cultivation effect is also argued to be strongest when viewer's
neighbourhood is similar to that shown on television. Crime on television is largely
57
urban. So urban heavy viewers are subject to a double dose and cultivation theorists argue
that violent content 'resonates' more for them. The strongest effects of heavy viewing on
attitudes to violence are likely to be amongst those in the high crime areas of cities
(Gerbner, 1993).
3.3 Social Learning theory
The principal understanding of Social Learning Theory is tied to the social context of
learning. Bandura has emphasized the fact that people who observe responses of
individuals tend to exhibit the same when placed in similar settings. According to
Bandura, behaviours and responses that are repeated, perceived as real, distinct,
functional and salient are more likely to be attended to, thus more likely to be learned.
When observing an event, which receives some kind of reward like social approval,
pleasant experience and when the observer feels confident to perform, its symbolic
imitation is facilitated. The social cognitive principle has been widely employed to
explain the television effects on a variety of social issues such as aggression, ethnic
stereotypes, alcohol attitudes and behaviour. It also stresses the importance of viewer’s
cognitive activities when consuming television messages (Bandura, 1977).
Any person’s socialization process is influenced by innumerable factors such as
family, school, environmental factors etc. Direct experience and participation are
important parameters which shape the youth’s impressions of the perceived structure of
their environment. However, these forms of experience are usually limited to the
immediate environment. Mass media, particularly television, plays a crucial role in
bringing the outside world into homes. As an important institution, mass media enters the
socialization process of an individual.
The Social Learning Theory explains how environment influences the behavior of
an individual. DeFleur and Sandra (1989) stated “despite general in nature, Social
Learning Theory is particularly relevant to study the impact of mass communication
because the description and portrayal of social life is a frequent subject in media
contents”. The most common (and pervasive) examples of social learning situations are
television commercials. Commercials suggest that drinking a certain beverage or using a
particular shampoo will make us popular and win the admiration of attractive people.
Depending upon the component processes involved (such as attention or motivation),
users may model the behavior shown in the commercial and buy the product being
advertised.
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Actions of characters in the audio-visual media can serve as a model for others to
imitate. Modelling Theory is also useful for describing the application of general Social
Learning Theory which explains how new behaviours are acquired by people from media
portrayals. An individual observes a character, identifies him/her as a model and
remembers actions of model and performs them when confronted with similar
circumstances (DeFleur and Sandra, 1989). Literature has shown that viewers acquire
attitudes, emotional responses and new styles of conduct from media especially from
films and television (Bandura, 1973 and Liebert, 1973). The theory clearly establishes
that the media can serve as agents in the socialization process.
In the light of all these theories stated above, it is important to mention that the
researcher has formulated an amalgam of the three theories in order to assess what is the
main reason of their watching, their preferred channels and programmes (Uses and
Gratifications Theory). While on the other hand, it has also measured what kind of effects
are taking place in the lives of the sample under study? If there are effects that are
changing attitudes of women under the study. Are these effects long-lasting or short term
(Cultivation Analysis and Social Learning Theory). Hence, the researcher intended to
explore all this for which the base of above mentioned theories was most suitable and
required.
Based on the Social Learning, Cultivation and Uses and Gratifications theories,
the present study hypothesized that characters and their behaviour in programmes of cable
television channels serve as a model for heavy viewers. They may acquire certain
characteristics which in turn influence their attitudes. It was also assumed that the women
(aged 18-40 years) are vulnerable to influences and tend to be inclined towards change.
Women would serve as a barometer to assess the influence of cable television. Hence,
women of reproductive age (18-40 years) were selected for the study to determine the
degree to which their attitudes were influenced by cable television.
Now, with the availability of the foreign channels, an important question arises;
does a woman’s behaviour reflect what she has watched on the television screen? The
impact of foreign television programmes on women involves a number of indispensable
factors such as interest in the programmes, viewing pattern, reasons for watching, attitude
towards programmes and models of social reality that these programmes promote. The
study aimed at finding out whether and to what extent cable television channels affect
women in Pakistan. The researcher aimed at finding answers to questions such as what
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women think about these programmes in terms of their preferences and relevance. Is there
any restriction on women for watching cable television channels? Whether they
experience an impact of these programmes on their attitudes or not?
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CHAPTER 4
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Part I - Hypothesis and Operationalisation of the Concepts
The government of Pakistan relaxed the electronic media policy in 2000 and allowed
cable operators to work legally. Consequently, cable industry has grown rapidly and
started transmitting local and foreign satellite television channels through their
networks. The number of subscribers increased swiftly and exposed to the western and
Indian societies. This has not only broken the monopoly of the state-owned electronic
media in the country and provided a variety in channels and programmes but also
elevated the concern over its effects on viewers. Hence, this study was carried out to
probe the effects of cable television in Pakistan.
Fundamental aim of this study was to ascertain the effects of cable television on
women in Lahore, Pakistan, and suggest some recommendations for policy-makers and
broadcasters. The study intends to record the demographic characteristics of cable
television subscribers (women aged 18-40 years only), their consumption patterns and
measures their level of viewing. It also probes whether or not there is any gender
discrimination in cable television viewing and explores that how the viewing of cable
television is affecting the lives of women residing in Lahore.
4.1 Major Hypothesis
The major hypothesis designed for the study was “Greater the exposure to cable
television greater the effect on the lives of women in Lahore, Pakistan”.
The core purpose of this study was to dig out the influence of foreign channels or
local channels with foreign contents on the social life, values and behaviour patterns of
female viewers. Therefore, the researcher was interested in examining whether or not
and how far is the cable television affecting women in Pakistan at grass-root level in
terms of the following factors:
· Domestic and other activities
· Family and social interaction patterns
· Appearance and style
· Cultural practices i.e. food, language, dress, traditions and religion
· Domestic and personal expenditure
· Role of Pakistani women in society
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The researcher has selected the above-mentioned factors based on the conclusion
drawn after reviewing the relevant literature. Most of the viewers were of the view
that television viewing generates socio-economic and cultural changes. Therefore,
the researcher has formed the following sub-hypothesis:
4.1.1 Sub-Hypotheses
· Heavy viewers of cable television experience greater degree of effect on their
domestic and other activities than the moderate and light viewers
· Heavy viewers of cable television experience a greater degree of change in their
family and social interaction patterns than the moderate and light viewers
· Heavy viewers of cable television tend to show a greater degree of acceptance of
television characters’ appearance and style than the moderate and light viewers
· Heavy viewers of cable television experience greater degree of effect on their
cultural practices than the moderate and light viewers
· Heavy viewers of cable television have experience a greater degree of effect on
their domestic and personal expenditures than the moderate and light viewers
· Heavy viewers of cable television tend to show a greater degree of acceptance of
role of women as portrayed on Indian and western channels than the moderate
and light viewers
4.2 Variables of the Study
The study has independent and dependent variables:
4.2.1 Independent Variable
“Exposure to cable television” was an independent variable of the study. It means the
time spend viewing cable television by the respondent. Therefore greater the time spend
against cable television greater will be the exposure.
4.2.2 Dependant Variables
“Effect on lives of women” as the dependent variable is explained below:
· Domestic and other activities
· Family and social interaction patterns
· Appearance and style
· Cultural practices i.e. food, language, dress, traditions and religion
· Domestic and personal expenditure
· Role of Pakistani women
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4.3 Conceptualization
The major terms used in the study are defined below:
4.3.1 Cable Television
i. Formal
Encyclopaedia Britannica (1986) describes cable television as: “Generally, a
system that distributes television signals by means of coaxial or fiber optic
cables. The term also includes systems that distribute signals solely via satellite.”
ii. Operational
In this research, it (cable television) is referred only to those cable television
networks which were working in Lahore, Pakistan, and transmitting local,
western and Indian channels through coaxial or fiber optic cables.
4.3.2 Exposure
i. Formal
“Lying open to reader an accessible, liable to action or influence.” (Oxford
Dictionary (1958).
“An action of exposing, lying open, setting for the programme and liable to
action and influence (Webster, 1967, p. 802).
ii. Operational
By exposure to cable television, the researcher intends to define the time that
women allocate towards viewing cable television channels. Moreover, this also
pertains to the type of channels and programmes that the female viewers prefer
to watch, so that it can determine the kind of “exposure” consequential to the
“change in their life patterns”.
4.3.3 Level of Viewing
The number of hours devoted to viewing cable television programmes per day
determines the level of viewing for this study. The researcher divided the viewers into
three categories i.e. heavy, moderate and light viewers, instead of two because the main
aim of the study was to compare two extremes i.e. heavy and light viewers.
i. Heavy Viewer
The respondents who watch cable television channels for 4 and more than 4
hours per day are considered as heavy viewer.
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ii. Moderate viewer
The respondents who watch cable television channels for more than two but less
than four hours per day are considered as moderate viewer.
iii. Light Viewer
The respondents who watch cable television channels up to two hours per day
are considered as light viewer.
Table 4.2: Viewers Category by Hours of viewing
Viewers category Hours of viewing per day
Heavy viewer 4 and more than 4 hours
Moderate viewer More than 2 but less than 4 hours
Light viewer Up to 2 hours
4.3.4 Women
i. Formal
A woman is an adult female in contrast to a man, adult male, a girl and a female
child. The term woman is used to indicate distinction based on sex and cultural
bgender role or both.
ii. Operational
In this dissertation, the researcher has defined woman as a female of the
reproductive age of 18-40 years old. The researcher has deliberately avoided
those females who have reached this age bracket but are studying in any
institution. The reason of keeping them out of the sample was that they might get
affected from their peer group instead of directly viewing of cable television.
Hence, the researcher considered only those 18-40 years old women who were
working or house managers but not studying in any institution.
4.3.5 Change in Life
i. Formal
Change means people engaged in such activities that are different from those
which they or their parents were engaged in. (Saif, and Syed, 1999).
Life is the quality that humans, animals and plants have when they are not dead.
It distinguishes them from objects, materials and substances and is responsible
for their growth and development (Websters’ Dictionary, 1967).
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ii. Operational
The researcher has taken into account some of the aspects of target women’s life
which were being affected by cable television channels.
4.3.6 Domestic and Other Activities
i. Formal
Domestic role is especially significant in a Pakistani woman’s life. The
wife/house manager is the one who generally does most of the household work
such as cooking, cleaning, washing, taking care of children and helping them in
their studies, buying groceries or household goods and so on and so forth. Other
activities of women include reading newspapers, magazines, books, listening to
music, praying, reading of religious books, going out for shopping and outing
etc. The researcher was interested in seeing the effects of paying time to watch
cable television on women’s activities’ Eashwer (1994) did a study in India
which revealed that 16 out of 30 women spent over 4 hours a day watching cable
television and 10 of them spent 2 to 3 hours a day. Major activities affected are:
· Exposure to other media and reading habits
· Interaction with children, husband, other family members, friends and
neighbours
· Cooking and other household work
ii. Operational
This factor was operationalized. One dependent variable which deals with
changes in women’s daily routine life and its effect on their domestic and other
activities i.e. household chores, newspapers, magazines and book reading, going
out for shopping, outing and cinema, listening to music, prayer and religious
book reading, etc.
4.3.7 Family and Social Interaction Patterns
i. Formal
Traditionally, families in Pakistan have close relationship and interact with each
other affectionately. Majority is used to live in joint family system and spend
leisure time with parents, friends and relatives. They are used to share their
feelings, emotions and family matters with each other. Similarly, social
interaction is a part of Pakistan’s culture. People meet frequently with their
friends and peers. They arrange gatherings, visit their neighbours and welcome
65
them at their homes. It seems that due to cable television channels, people prefer
watching dramas and movies rather than interacting with family members or
going out and meeting friends and neighbours. Media contents might be a topic
of discussion among them. But their concentration might be more towards the
television programmes instead of family and social issues. This may affect the
family and social interaction. Therefore, this research was aimed at identifying
the changes occurring in the family and social interaction patterns of women.
ii. Operational
The study operationalized this factor into ten items which broadly deal with:
· Social interaction: Change in interaction patterns with relatives, neighbours
and friends in terms of time and visit
· Family interaction: Change in family interaction patterns i.e. with husband
and children in terms of time at home, outing and interruption during
watching cable television
4.3.8 Appearance and Style
i. Formal
Lifestyle is defined as the integration of decisions in the realm of career,
personal and family relationship and leisure that results in guiding principles
which directs one’s life (cited in Vijayalakshmi, 2005, p. 61). Lifestyle also
includes clothing, food, accent and leisure pursuits. A person’s qualification,
educational experience, occupation and levels of responsibility within his/her
culture also determine his/her lifestyle.
It is general observation that people follow celebrities shown in
television programmes. They are seen as role models. Fashion and style
introduced by them is considered as latest and advanced. It is general
observation that media content remains the topic of discussion among people
these days. Therefore, concentration might be more towards fashion, characters
and predictions about what is going to happen next. Shopping of items related to
personal appearance might be changing due to the exposure to foreign channels
through cable television. The researcher has personally viewed that such items
like jewellery and outfits with the names of television drama characters are
available in the shopping areas in Lahore.
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ii. Operational
This research tried to discover the target audience associating their personal
appearance and lifestyle with television characters. The study described
appearance and lifestyle as of dressing up hairstyle, make up, jewellery and
accent adopted by women. Thus this dimension was operationalized into six
dependant variables i.e. acceptance of resemblance with television characters,
imitating television character’s hairstyles, accent, make-up, jewellery, etc.
4.3.9 Culture Practices
i. Formal
Culture can be defined in several ways. It is the way of life in a particular
society. Every culture has its own values system. In socialization, culture guides
people what to do and what not to do. But there is no standardized definition of
culture. Various scholars have defined it in different ways. Williams (1977) says
culture is the sum of available description through which society makes sense
and reflects their common experience. Williams states “culture is a way of life”.
Culture is conceptualized in a variety of ways and is also widely used in
inter-cultural communication. Although culture is defined in terms of a
nation/state, most people conceptualized culture in terms of race, social class and
gender identity etc. Culture patterns are normative to the extent that they
represent the fundamental values and practices accepted by the whole society.
(Vijayalaskshmi, 2005, p. 46). John F. Cuber (1968) states “there is one
fundamental and inescapable attribute of culture: the fact of unending change.
Phrases like “stagnant cultures” and “unchanging cultures” are misleading. All
that squares with facts is that some societies sometimes change slowly, and
hence in comparison to other societies seem not to be changing at all. But they
are changing even though not radically or obviously so”.
Jamias (1993) has reviewed the knowledge on new communication
technologies pertaining to cultural identity. He summarizes that fear burns rife
over the negative impact potential of the new communication technologies on
cultural identity in rural Asia. Yet technology is not neutral. Technology is good
or bad depending on the use. Shariffadeen (1995) research study looks at some
of the major economic, cultural and social issues faced by developing countries
arising from the new technology. It is suggested that developing nations promote
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a learning culture among their people in order to gain a foothold in the emerging
information-based economy.
According to the above-mentioned statements, it is obvious that culture
in Pakistan is changing with the passage of time. Therefore, it was intriguing for
the researcher to find out changes occurring in the cultural practices in Pakistan
and its relationship (if any) with the viewing of cable television. Thus, the
researcher has taken language, food, religion and some traditions as indicators of
culture practices.
Language
Language is a strong part of the culture and cable television channels have
affected it. Urdu and English are the official languages of Pakistan. Formally and
informally, people speak regional and Urdu languages. People watch more Hindi
channels on cable television as the Hindi language is close to Urdu and they
have a better understanding of it. English channels are also creating impact on
language. In Pakistani culture, people feel proud when they speak English and
those who cannot speak English frequently try to incorporate English words in
their regional and Urdu language to leave an impression. This study evaluates
whether and how these channels are affecting the language of Pakistani women.
Food Habits
At homes Pakistani people generally prefer light and simple food i.e. Daal, rice,
Roti vegetables, chicken, meat, fruit, etc. Family members sit together at dining
table and talk about family and social issues while having their meal and this is
the best time to discuss their family matters. It is general observation that these
days 24 hours access to the cable television and variety of channels is creating
impact and the eating trend is in the process of change and people prefer to take
their meals in front of television. Television channels are regularly showing food
preparation programmes so it was assumed that this might have changed their
food and eating habits. Further, in Lahori culture, eating is considered as the
greatest passion and all the recreation activities revolve around this. On the basis
of the above information, this study tried to assess that whether the food habits
are changing among women viewers residing in Lahore as changed food habits
in women will directly affect the food habits of the whole family.
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Dress
In urban areas the educated are dressed in a semi-western style at home. The
local dress consists of the Kurta and Shalwar. Achkan and Sherwani are worn on
formal occasions. The women's dress is generally more colorful. The important
items of the women clothing are Shalwar Kamiz and Dopatta or Chaddar to
cover their heads and upper parts of their body. Sari is only worn by women of
the upper classes in cities on formal occasion. Shoes are worn by those living in
city while women folk wear sandals and slippers; Purdah is not generally
observed by city women.
Religion
Cable television is not only providing Pakistani channels but also transferring
European, American, Indian and other channels. Through their programmes,
religions other than Islam, are exposed to the public in Pakistan which have
different values. The researcher assumed that such conditions might affect the
religious trends in Pakistan. Some of the researches have proved that Indian
channels are giving undue exposure to Hinduism through their dramas and
movies (Pervez, 2006). Vulgarity and action scenes in these movies might
influence their attitudes towards religion and their routine lives. Therefore, this
research tried to evaluate effects on religious attitudes of light and heavy
viewers.
Traditions
Pakistani people practice hospitality and show generosity towards others. They
obey and respect each other, particularly their elders. Moreover, in Pakistan joint
family system is as praised as compared to nuclear family. They share their
happiness as well as sorrows. Now a days, people in Pakistan are being exposed
to Indian, western and other culture’s rituals, traditions and celebrations like
Valentine’s Day, Halloween, Holly, etc. not aligned with Pakistani norms and
traditions. The rituals of Pakistani marriages have been changed as many norms
and traditions of India are being followed now by the women in Pakistan. This
statement is verified by a study conducted by Tariq (2004) on “Invasion of
Indian culture through movies”. This study confirmed the influence of Indian
movies on marriage traditions/celebrations in high class of Lahore, Pakistan.
Keeping in view, the above-mentioned particulars, the researcher tried to figure
out what types of changes are occurring in our traditions.
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ii. Operational
This factor was operationalized into 24 items which deal with the five
parameters including language, food, dressing, religion and some of traditions as
indicators of culture practices.
· Food: Acceptance of television as the best source of learning new dishes and
the usage of western and Indian dishes and changed pattern of dining
· Dressing: Acceptance of television as best source of fashion and dress
designs and usage of western and Indian dresses as casual and party wear
· Language: Acceptance of television as the best source of learning languages
and the usage of Indian and English language
· Traditions: Acceptance and practice of Indian and western traditions
· Religion: Acceptance of television as the best source of religious
information and changing trends
4.3.10 Domestic and Personal Expenditure
i. Formal
Many research studies have proved that exposure to television, especially to
commercials, is affecting peoples household budgets. This imbalance of budge
may compel the family members to discover new ways of earnings. Through
cable television, women of Pakistan are getting exposed a variety of western and
Indian channels. It is quite obvious that it disturbs their budget. Thus the
research tried to discover the changes occurring in domestic and personal
expenditures. The affect on expenditure is also assessed by the tendency of
women to indulge themselves in any business service or some other means of
earning. This may happen because of advertisements on cable television
channels. People get motivated to purchase new products and try them which
may affect their daily budget.
ii. Operational
Domestic and personal expenditures operationalized that how cable television
affects their domestic and personal expenditures and are they ready to become an
earning hand?
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4.3.11 Role of Pakistani Women in Society
i. Formal
Women in Pakistan are expected to be more fostering, integrative and conjugal.
Principally, they are responsible for child-rearing and home-making while men
are responsible for generating income and management. Women are made to
realize from early days of life that they are frail, childish, dependent, domestic,
gullible, irrational, scheming creatures and not susceptible to taking important
decisions or doing important things. Such realizations persuade women to accept
their role in society only as housewife, regardless of their education, aspirations
or intellect.
Traditionally, Pakistan has a culture for arrange marriages. Most of the
time parents or relatives select the match for their children particularly for their
daughters. Caste and status is also considered before making decision. Majority
of the families have a joint set-up. Therefore, women in families other than
house- keeping, preparing food and taking care of children, also have to look
after the elders of the family. Education and increasing expenditures are pushing
women out of home to join workplaces but they do not receive encouragement
from their homes and society. Working women sometimes get little help from
their families in making adjustment with regard to demand on their time and
pressure of work. But their prime duty is still considered as home-making,
fulfilling the responsibilities as daughter, wife and mother and their careers do
get the same weightage. Therefore, such women always remain under stress.
It is clear that media, both broadcast and print, play an important role in
defining what we think, who we are and what is our place is in the society.
Media also helps define how issues are interpreted and evaluated. Western
channels show both husband and wife sharing the tasks of earning and
homemaking. These channels portray women as independent, enjoying freedom,
having strong careers and making decisions independently. Therefore, it would
be important and exciting to discover whether exposure to cable television has
brought any change in Pakistani women’s perspective of their role in the society.
ii. Operational
Behaviour of the female viewers, cognition and the way of reasoning also
involves a problem-solving attitude of the subjects under study. This concept
extends out to structuring and re-structuring of the social role, cultural,
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linguistic, religious and moral values of viewers. Through this concept, the
researcher intends to go up to the level of finding out whether or not the contents
of the cable television have deformed and reformed the social role of viewers
and how is this reformation effecting their personality, pattern of earning, getting
their rights and freedoms, methods of bringing up their children and taking care
of their homes.
This factor was operationalized into eight items which deal with
following indicators:
· Acceptance of career women: Acceptance of career for women equivalent
to the men
· Sharing of family responsibilities by men and women: Acceptance of
equally sharing family responsibilities by husband and wife i.e. nurturing
children, sharing of household chores and income generation
· Equal rights, respect and freedom of women: Acceptance of the idea that
women and men should have equal rights, independence and respect in the
society.
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Part II - RESEARCH DESIGN
4.4 Survey
In this study, survey method has been applied to obtain the data that is quantitative in
nature from large representative but diverse and widely scattered population. The survey
has aided the researcher in collecting information directly from the cable television
viewers (heavy, moderate and light viewers) so that a proper analysis could be made by
comparing their lives. The changes in their lives have hence figured out through the
information provided on a quantitative scale. This research was conducted during
February 2004 to May 2007. The data was collected in 2005.
4.4.1 Population
Due to the time and budgetary limitations, the total area covered by the study was Lahore
only. Wimmer and Dominick (1993) define population as “A group or a class of subjects,
variables, concepts or phenomena.” In the light of the above definition, total population of
this study comprises all female cable television viewers aged 18 to 40 years and residing
in Lahore. The researcher preferred this age group of women for the study because it is
the most vibrant, active and dynamic part of their lives. According to PEMRA the
estimated number of cable television subscribers in Lahore was 350,000. The estimated
total viewership in Lahore was 2,000,000 to 2,200,000. The expected number of women
targeted in this study was one fourth of the total viewership, which were about 500,000. It
was not feasible for the researcher to approach the total population therefore sampling
technique was applied.
4.5 Sampling Method
Even a modest sized survey typically requires considerable time, material, money and
assistance. Thus the researcher has applied sampling technique to collect the data
considering the definition of Wimmer and Dominick (1993) “a sample is the subset of the
population that is taken to be the representative of the entire population”.
The researcher selected Lahore as the field of study because it is the traditional
capital city of Punjab and an urban center. It is the second largest city of Pakistan and
cosmopolitan in nature. It consists of heterogeneous population comprising Punjabis,
Pathan, Baluchis, Sindhis, and Kashmiris etc belonging to different religions and
speaking different languages (see Appendix II for further details).
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73
Lahore is considered as the hub of media industry. Almost all national dailies have
their offices and are published from here. An established and oldest set up of Pakistan
Broadcasting Corporation (PBC) located in Lahore is working productively since the
creation of the country. Besides PBC, various FM radio channels are effectively working
here. All television channels have their bureau offices in Lahore. According to PEMRA
regional office Lahore, the Authority has issued 83 head end licensees till 2006, out of
which 68 are active and 276 loop holders are successfully handling the cable operation
and serving the 0.35 million subscribers. Every cable operator and loop holder provides
more than 100 channels to the connection holder. Most of these channels are western and
Indian, transmitting programmes in English and Hindi languages. English language, used
as the medium of instruction in most of the educational institutions in Lahore, is also
considered as a status symbol in Pakistan, particularly in cosmopolitan cities like Lahore.
So people are familiar with the language and thus take interest in English language
channels and programmes. On the other hand the main cause of popularity of Indian
channels among the public in Pakistan is the similarities of Urdu and Hindi languages.
These two languages are closer to each other and people understand them without putting
any extra effort and thus feel comfortable watching Indian channels.
The researcher was interested in collecting the data from large population but due
to time and financial constraints, total 432 women cable television viewers belonging to
Lahore were selected as a sample of the study. Lahore was divided into six towns by the
government for administrative purposes, including
· Aziz Bhatti Town
· Data Gunj Bakash Town
· Allama Iqbal Town
· Nishtar Town
· Ravi Town
· Shalimar Town
(see Appendix III for further details)
The government administrative “Division” was used because each division consists of
demographically diverse population. The researcher was able to target different groups of
women of the society based on income, education, marital status, working and house
managers, etc. Upon discussion with MS. Max Media (decoder provider to the cable
operators) it appeared that subscribers were almost equally distributed in all the towns.
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Since no authentic and systematic list of viewers was available to the researcher, it
was decided to select equal respondents from each town by applying non-probability
quota sampling. Allocation of Equal quota to each town was utilized to ensure that
findings can be generalised to all of Lahore.
Pakistan and in particular Lahore has witnessed rapid growth of cable television
network after its legalization in year 2000. The researcher was also interested to find out
the duration for which women of Lahore have been watching cable television. Women
viewing cable television for less than 2 years were excluded from the sample because the
researcher believes that time period less than 2 years is insufficient to cause effects on
viewers. Based on this criterion four categories were made:
· Watching cable television for the last 2 years
· Watching cable television for the last 3 years
· Watching cable television for the last 4 years
· Watching cable television for more then 4 years
The selected women for interview fulfilled the criterion of sample i.e. women aged
between 18-40 years, residing in Lahore and viewing cable television for minimum of
two years. Initially the researcher decided to draw a sample of 75 (being a modest no.)
from each town making it a total of 450. Finally applying quota (a sampling method) and
allocation of equal quota for each town and category it ended up at 18.75 per category. To
avoid any complication of decimal and to have an even number, researcher decided to
round it up at 18 (being an even number) and have a sample of 72 from each town which
made total sample of 432 units. One respondent was considered as one unit of analysis.
The researcher tried to create a balance among respondents from all categories i.e. heavy,
moderate and light viewers for better results. A screener was used to identify the
respondent. The screener asked about the availability of television, cable television
connection and women aged 18-40 years (see Questionnaire, Appendix-VI). Only one
respondent was selected from one household. In case, more than one respondent were
available in one household the Kish Grid (see Appendix IV) was utilized to select the
respondent.
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4.5.1 Sampling Dynamics
Table 4.3 indicates the division of the sample size.
Table 4.3: Sampling Dynamics (N- 432)
Duration
of cable
connection
Aziz Bhatti
Town
Data
Gunj
Bakash
Town
Allama
Iqbal
Town
Nishtar
Town
Ravi
Town
Shalimar
Town
More than 4
years 18 18 18 18 18 18
4 years 18 18 18 18 18 18
3 years 18 18 18 18 18 18
2 years 18 18 18 18 18 18
Total 72 72 72 72 72 72
4.5.2 Household Route
The universe of the study was Lahore and for data collection government administrative
division was used which divided Lahore into six towns and 150 union councils. Every
town has different number of union councils. Details are as follow:
Table 4.4: Towns and No. of Union Councils
Town No of union councils
Aziz Bhatti Town 13
Data Gunj Bakash Town 33
Allama Iqbal Town 26
Nishtar Town 25
Ravi Town 30
Shalimar Town 23
Sourse: Office of the District Nazim. (see Appendix V for further details)
Addresses of town offices and union councils were collected and effort was made
to approach maximum households in all towns (see Appendix V). The researcher, with
the help of town offices, defined the household route. The researcher applied right hand
rule and started selecting respondents from the first household at right hand side of the
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town offices. Then the screener was applied and respondents were selected on the basis of
sampling method for interview.
4.6 Data Collection
4.6.1 Tool of Data Collection
In this research, interviews’ schedule (verbal interview based on questionnaire) was
selected as a tool for data collection because some of the respondents were illiterate and
would not be able to read and answer the questionnaire.
4.6.2 Pre Testing and reliability test
The interview schedule was pre-tested. Pre-testing was done by interviewing one
respondent in each category from every town. The result revealed certain shortcomings in
the instrument so the researcher made modifications before finalizing it. To test the
reliability of the instrument, Cronbach’s alpha approach was applied. This method of
testing the reliability is commonly used when study of knowledge, attitude and practice is
conducted and questions are in the form of Likert’s scale (Likert’s-1952). In a Likert’s
scale a person expresses an opinion by rating his agreement with a series of statements
(Hanif, & Ahmad, 2004).
4.6.3 Collection of Data and Field Experiences
The researcher engaged six female interviewers who personally had the experience of
conducting interviews for media research. Still the researcher gave them a thorough
orientation regarding the instrument. The enumerators were trained on how to conduct an
interview and what to do if the respondent is distracted, loses interest or runs out of time.
After a thorough review of the questionnaire, the interviewers started data collection.
Efforts were made to get the female interviewees of different socio-economic
background. Total sample consisted of 432 women of reproductive age i.e.18-40 years
residing in Lahore.
Data collection was completed in four months (August-November 2005). The
instrument was formulated in English which was translated into standard Urdu language
for the convenience of the interviewees. The interviewers had to face some difficulties in
finding the target audience and in conducting interviews because of non-cooperative
attitude of some of the respondents. Some of the respondents hesitated to respond to some
of the questions. Some of the respondents had difficulty due to personal reasons to answer
at the time interviewers approached them.
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4.7 Data Processing
The researcher has used the Statistical Package for the Social Science (SPSS
Version 13.0) for analyzing the data. Besides, Excel and MS Word were used for
designing charts, tables, graphs and composing the thesis script. Similarly, for composing
and designing the Urdu version questionnaire, “In Page” Urdu software was used. For
data entry and analysis, the researcher had taken a very rigorous training course,
particularly to learn SPSS. The researcher by experience felt that without the knowledge
of computer in general and understanding the SPSS in particular, this research study
might have not been successfully accomplished.
4.7.1 Measure for Analysis
After data collection scores were assigned to the respective categories of the questions
which were necessary for quantification of variables. The researcher entered the data
through SPSS. Data sheet was prepared by transferring information obtained from the
respondents for the purpose of scoring.
Data was analyzed separately to examine each hypothesis. As the study evaluated
the association between exposure to cable television and change in lifestyles of women, a
statistical tool, Chi-Square was used. The Chi-Square test is often used in research work
where the data consists of frequencies or counts. The most common use of the test is
probably with categorical data. The data of this research was of categorical nature hence
the researcher applied Chi-Square to analyse it. The results were tested at 5 % level of
significance which means that researcher is 95% confident in making the correct decision
(Chaudhry, S. & Kamal, S. 2006, p. 129).
Each of dependant variables was operationalized into a set of parameters and the
answers were obtained on Likert 3 – point scale as mentioned in table 4.5.
Table 4.5: Opinion and Respective Values
Opinion Value
Agree 3
Undecided 2
Disagree 1
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78
Construction of Scale
The next step in measure is construction of scale. The researcher made a three-point scale,
comprising three points as high, medium and low for dependent variable.
The minimum and maximum score actually received by a respondent for a factor
was divided into three categories i.e. high, medium and low to measure the intensity of
the effect.
i. Effect on Domestic Activities
Score Index for Q14
· Minimum Value = 1
· Maximum Value = 3
In this question the researcher could get a maximum score of 3 and minimum
score of 1. The responses were categorized into three categories i.e. low, medium
and high on the basis of standard score.
Category Score
Low effect 1
Medium effect 2
High effect 3
ii. Effect on Social Interaction
Score index for Q15 to Q15: F
· Minimum value was = 7
· Maximum value was = 21
The values are divided into three categories i.e. low, medium and high.
Category Score
From no to low effect 7 to 11
Medium effect 12 to 16
High effect 17 to 21
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79
iii. Interaction of Husband and Wife
Q15G
· Minimum value = 1
· Maximum value = 3
The values are divided into three categories of low, medium and high.
Category Score
No to low effect 1
Medium effect 2
High effect 3
iv. Mother-Child Interaction
Q15H
· Minimum value = 1
· Maximum value = 3
The values are divided into three categories of No to low, medium and high
effects.
Category Score
No to low effect 1
Medium effect 2
High effect 3
v. Appearance and Style
Q16_16:E
· Minimum value was = 6
· Maximum value was= 18
The values are divided into three categories of low, medium and high.
Category Score
No to low effect 6 to 9
Medium effect 10 to 13
High effect 14 to 18
80
80
vi. Cultural Practices
Q 17.1- 17.5: A
· Minimum expected value was 25 points but on the data analyses it was found
that not a single respondent scored below 27 points. Therefore, 27 was taken
as the minimum value.
· Maximum value was= 75
The values are divided into three categories like low, medium and high.
Category Score
No to low effect 27 to 43
Medium effect 44 to 59
High effect Above 59
vii. Personal and Domestic Expenditure
Q18-18: B
· Minimum value is = 3
· Maximum value is= 9
The values are divided into three categories of low, medium and high.
Category Score
No to low effect 3 to 5
Medium effect 6 to 7
High effect 8 to 9
viii. Social Role of Pakistani women
Q19- 19: G
· Minimum expected value was 8. During data analysis it was noticed that
minimum scored value was 10.
· Maximum value was= 24
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The values are divided into three categories of low, medium and high.
Category Score
No to low effect 10 to 14
Medium effect 15 to19
High effect 20 to 24
4.8 Application of Statistical Test
The following statistics were used to analyze the data.
4.8.1 Univariate Analysis
This study has examined the relationship between exposure to cable television channels
and changes in life pattern of women in Lahore, Pakistan. The researcher was also
interested in recording the demographic characteristics of cable television viewers, their
patterns of viewing and to find whether there was any gender discrimination in cable
television viewing. Therefore, univariate analysis was also used through percentage
distribution and cross tab and presented the data in form of figures, tables, etc.
4.8.2 Bivariate Analysis
For the hypotheses testing and verification of the association between the exposure and
changes in life patterns of women, the Chi-Square statistical analysis was applied.
As the observation of the samples was classified according to two variables, Chi-
Square (x2) Test for contingency table was applied to see whether the 2 variables of
classification independent or dependant have any association.
Procedure for Testing Hypothesis
Testing hypothesis of associations for contingency tables:
1: Formula the null and alternative hypothesis:
Ho: The two variables of classification are not associated.
H1: The two variables of classification are associated.
2: Decide the significance level α
3: Test statistic to be used is
åå
= =
-
=
r
i
c
j ij
ij ij
e
o e
1 1
2
2 ( )
c
Which if Ho is true has an approximate Chi-Square distribution with (r-1) (c-1)
degrees of freedom.
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82
4: Compute the expected frequencies under Ho
Number of observations
i rowtotal j column total
n
A B
e
th th
i j
ij
( )( )
( )( )
=
=
Also calculate the value of x² and the d.f.
5: Determine the critical region which depends upon and the number of d.f.
6: Decide as below:
Reject Ho if the computed value of x² >= x² α (r-1) (c-1). Accept Ho, otherwise.
For a (2x2) table only test statistic is changed, rest of the procedure is same. Test
statistic used in the case is
x² = ( a+b+c+d)(ad-bc)²
(a+b)(b+d)(c+d)(a+c)
83
CHAPTER 5
DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION
Part I - General Findings
5.1 Cable Television Viewing Patterns of Women
This study measured the association between the exposure to cable television channels
and changes in life patterns of women in Lahore, Pakistan, through the bivariate analysis.
Details of bivariate analysis have been given in part II (Analytic Section) of this chapter.
Besides, the researcher was also interested in understanding the restrictions and viewing
trends of the sample. Therefore, descriptive analysis was also carried out and results are
presented in part I of this chapter. The descriptive analysis section recorded demography
of respondents and focused on age, education, income, marital status etc. and tried to
gauge their effects on the viewing of cable television. Some of the earlier studies
indicated that demographic characteristics allow the development of media viewing habits
of users. Atkin and LaRose (1991) research findings suggested that access viewers do not
fit the upscale information seekers profile typical of other public affairs consumers. While
better educated and heavy access viewers are nevertheless likely to be older, tired and
have lower incomes. Such research indicates, for instance, that general viewership is
higher among larger, younger and non-white families. This is clearly not the case with
access.
Cable television viewing is no more restricted to upper and upper-middle class of
Pakistan as it used to be. Because of the inexpensive and easy access, cable television is
being used by all classes of the country. It has become one of the common household
commodities. Therefore, this study attempted to understand whether demography
influence the viewing pattern of respondents or not. Moreover, this part of the study
presented the data, according to duration of having cable television connections,
respondents preferred channels and kinds of programmes, reasons for watching cable
television, preferred time of watching, control over remote, right and restriction on
viewing cable television. It also analyses the relationship between above factors and level
of viewing. The descriptive analysis was presented in percentage through cross tabs and
figures (tables are provided as Appendix I).
84
5.2 Demographic Characteristics of Respondents
A total of 72 respondents from each town of Lahore were interviewed. As illustrated
through the Table 5-A, majority of the respondents were aged between 31 to 40 years (60
percent). Studying the impact of cable television on their lives was important due to the
fact that women of this age group are considered mature and comparatively independent.
Normally, they are married at this stage and have children. In most cases they constitute a
social nucleus of the family and they tend to enjoy greater degree of influence on social
and economic patterns of the family life. Their role is also very important in the
upbringing of children in a society where this role is strictly considered as a woman’s
domain. Likewise, despite highly male-dominated norms of the society, women enjoy a
certain degree of freedom in deciding domestic expenditures, food, dress and social
interaction. It is the period in their lives when they are settling down with a new family
and they are learning more about family lifestyle through interaction with others and most
importantly through television channels now available easily – courtesy cable network
technology.
Table 5-A shows that minimum qualification of more then three-fifth of the
respondents (63.2 per cent) was graduation. However a majority of the respondents (73.1
percent) were house managers who stay at home and are directly or indirectly involved in
domestic affairs. One-fourth of the respondents were working women who also
supposedly handle their household matters. Besides being the house managers, the
highest number of respondents belonged to the monthly income group of over Rs 25,000,
indicating that they had relatively less economic pressures and had enough time to watch
cable television. They also apparently have economic means to translate impact of media
in terms of their own lives.
The highest number (67.8 percent) of the respondents were married, 31.5 percent
unmarried whereas 0.7 percent were either divorcees or widowers. The results justify
suitability of respondents with this research as majority of them were educated and had
capacity to understand a variety of messages even in foreign languages like English and
Hindi. Again most of them were married having purchasing power of varying extent and
could directly or indirectly influence media-motivated change in their lifestyle in their
families.
85
Table 5.A: Demographic Characteristics of the Respondents
5.3 Duration of Having Cable Television Connection
The longer the duration of viewing of cable television, the greater may be the impact.
Therefore, the study intends to know the respondents’ past association with cable
television in general and relationship between the time since the cable television facility
was available and viewing level in particular. As illustrated through the Table 5.1 (see
Sr.# Demographic
characteristics
Description of
characteristics
f %
18- 25 83 19.2
26-30 92 21.3
31-35 83 19.2
Age
(years)
36-40 174 40.3
1.
Total 432 100.0
Up to primary 18 4.2
Secondary 141 32.6
Education
Graduation 167 38.7
Graduation plus 106 24.5
2.
Total 432 100.0
Profession House manager 316 73.1
Working 116 26.9
3.
Total 432 100.0
1000 to 5000 71 16.4
5001 to 10000 61 14.1
10001 to 15000 60 13.9
15001 to 20000 55 12.7
20001 to 25000 56 13.0
Income
(per month)
25000 plus 129 29.9
4.
Total 432 100.0
Married 293 67.8
Unmarried 136 31.5
Marital status
Others 3 .7
5.
Total 432 100.0
86
Appendix I) and Figure 5.1, respondents enjoying cable facility for the last two years
were more in number (29.47 per cent) than those having cable television connections for
the past three years or more. This establishes that cable television became more popular
in Lahore during the past two years (2003-05), attaining general acceptability.
29.4%
23.0%
23.6%
23.8% UP TO TWO YEARS
THREE YEARS
FOUR YEARS
MORE THAN FOUR
YEARS
Fig. 5.1: Duration of Having Cable Connection
5.4 Level of Viewing
Figure 5.2 and Table 5.2 (see Appendix I) and illustrate the distribution of viewers
according to their level of viewing. Among 432 respondents, heavy viewers (daily 4
hours and above watching time) were 144 (33.3 per cent), moderate viewers (more than
two but less than four hours) were 145 (33.6 per cent) and light viewers 143 (33.1 per
cent). This shows equal representation of each category.
Fig 5. 2: Level of Viewing
33.1%
33.6%
33.3%
1-2 HOURS
MORE THAN 2 BUT
LESS THAN 4 HOURS
4 AND MORE THAN 4
HOURS
87
5.5 Duration of Cable Connection by Level of Viewing
Table 5.3 indicates no association between the level of viewing and duration of cable
connection. However, it is apparent from the table that highest percentage of heavy
viewers (27.8) belongs to the category of respondents enjoying cable facility for the last
two years and lowest percentage of heavy viewers (20.1) goes to the category of
respondents having cable facility for more than four years. Again, highest percentage of
light viewers represents the first category of the table and lowest percentage stands for the
category of respondents having cable connection from 25 to 36 months.
Table 5.3: Distribution of Respondents According to Duration of Cable Connection
and Level of Viewing
Heavy viewers
Moderate
viewers
Light viewers
Duration of Total
cable
connection
f % f % f % f (%)
24 months
40
27.8
38
26.2
49
34.3
127(29.4)
25 – 36
months
37
25.7
37
25.5
26
18.2
100(23.1)
37 – 48
months
38
26.4
34
23.4
30
21.0
102(23.6)
More Than
48 months
29
20.1
36
24.8
38
26.6
103(23.8)
Total
144
100.0
145
100.0
143
100.0
432(100)
88
5.6 Demography and Level of Viewing
The research also finds out that if there is any association between level of viewing and
demographic characteristics of respondents i.e., age, education, income, profession etc or
not. The related findings are presented below:
5.6.1 Age by Level of Viewing
Table 5.4 indicates no association between the level of viewing and age of respondents.
However, it is clear from the table that highest percentage of heavy and light viewers
(39.1 and 39.8) falls in the age group 26-30 and 18-25 years respectively. This is
interesting to note that the lowest percentage of heavy viewers belongs to age group of
18-25. This is in contrast to the general belief that this age group falls in the heavy
viewers’ category.
Table 5.4: Distribution of Respondents by their Age and Level of Viewing
Heavy viewers
Moderate
viewers
Light viewers
Total
Age
f % f % f % f (%)
18-25
25
30.1
25
30.1
33
39.8
83 (100)
26-30
36
39.1
35
38.0
21
22.8
92 (100)
31-35
30
36.1
22
26.5
31
37.3
83 (100)
36-40
53
30.5
63
36.2
58
33.3
174 (100)
Total
144
33.3
145
33.6
143
39.8
432 (100)
5.6.2 Education by Level of Viewing
Table 5.5 shows an association between the level of viewing and qualification of
respondents. The 2/5 of respondents with secondary education was the heavy viewers
whereas highest percentage of respondents with higher education (45.9) fell in the
category of light viewers. Thus it specifies that higher the level of qualification lower the
level of viewing cable television.
89
Table 5.5: Distribution of Respondents by their Education and Level of Viewing
Heavy viewers
Moderate
viewers
Light viewers
Total
Education
f
% f % f % f (%)
Up to
primary
7
38.9
5
27.8
6
33.3%
18 (100)
Secondary
56
39.7
52
36.9
33
23.4
141 (100)
Graduation
60
35.9
52
31.1
55
32.9
167 (100)
Graduation
plus
21
19.8
36
34.0
49
46.2
106 (100)
Total
143
33.1
145
33.6
144
33.3
432 (100)
5.6.3 Profession by Level of Viewing
Table 5.6 reveals that an association exists between the level of viewing and profession of
respondents. House managers, who are non-professionals, spare more time for watching
cable television as compared to the working class.
Table 5.6: Distribution of Respondents by their Profession and Level of Viewing
Heavy viewers
Moderate
viewers
Light viewers
Total
Profession
f % f % f % f (%)
House
manager
133
42.1
121
38.3
62
19.6
316 (100)
Working
11
9.5
24
20.7
81
69.8
116 (100)
Total
143
33.3
145
33.6
143
33.1
432 (100)
90
5.6.4 Residing Town by Level of Viewing
Table 5.7 represents that there was no association between the level of viewing and
residing area of respondents. However, the highest percentage of heavy viewers resided in
Data Gunj Bakash Town and light viewers in Allama Iqbal Town.
Table 5.7: Distribution of Respondents by their Residing Town and Level of Viewing
Heavy viewers
Moderate
viewers
Light viewers
Total
Address
f % f % f % f
Aziz Bhatti
Town
26 36.1 27 37.5 19 26.4 72
Data Gunj
Bakash
32 44.4 20 27.8 20 27.8 72
Iqbal Town 17 23.6 24 33.3 31 43.1 72
Nishtar Town 24 33.3 20 27.8 28 38.9 72
Ravi Town 19 26.4 27 37.5 26 36.1 72
Shalimar
Town
26 36.1 27 37.5 19 26.4 72
Total 144 33.3 145 33.6 143 33.1 432 (100)
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5.6.5 Income by Level of Viewing
Table 5.8 depicts that there is no significant association between the level of viewing and
income of respondents. However, those belonging to monthly income group of over Rs.
25,000 were the highest heavy viewers and Rs 15,001-20,000 the lowest heavy viewers.
Table 5.8: Distribution of Respondents by their Income and Level of Viewing
Heavy viewers
Moderate
viewers
Light viewers
Total
Income
f % f % f % f (%)
1000-5000 22 30.9 26 36.6 23 30.6 71 (100)
5001-10000 26 42.6 12 19.7 23 37.7 61 (100)
10001-15000 12 20.0 23 38.3 25 41.7 60 (100)
15001-20000 19 34.5 16 29.1 20 36.4 55 (100)
20001-25000 15 26.8 19 33.9 22 39.3 56 (100)
25000 plus 50 39.0 49 38.0 30 23.3 129 (100)
Total 144 33.3 145 33.1 143 33.1 432 (100)
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5.6.6 Marital Status and Level of Viewing
Table 5.9 indicates that there was no association between the level of viewing and marital
status of respondents. Marital status does not matter as each category has shown equal
interest in watching cable television.
Table 5.9: Distribution of Respondents by Marital Status and Level of Viewing
Heavy viewers
Moderate viewers
Light viewers
Total
Marital status
f % f % f % f (%)
Married 98 33.4 99 33.8 96 32.8 293 (100)
Un-married 45 33.1 45 33.1 46 33.8 136 (100)
Others 1 33.3 1 33.3 1 33.3 3 (100)
Total 144 33.3 145 33.6 143 33.1 432 (100)
5.7 Purpose of Watching Cable television
The study also analyzed the respondents’ aim of watching cable television channels.
Respondents could give multiple answers for the purpose of their watching the cable
television. The researcher took the first mentioned purpose only. Their responses are
mentioned in Table 5.10 and Figure 5.3 which indicate that the most frequently
mentioned reason was entertainment and relaxation followed by the urge to know about
foreign countries, education and guidance. The second enlisted reason confirms that the
curiosity about foreign lands itself makes respondents vulnerable to outlandish influences
including culture, and more for a change.
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Table 5.10: Purpose of Watching Cable Television
Purpose f (%)
Entertainment and relaxation 162 37.5
Know about other countries and their culture 83 19.2
Education and guidance 55 12.7
Sit and watch with family 39 9
Pastime 34 7.9
News and information 32 7.4
Know more about Pakistan 27 6.3
Total 432 100
37.5%
19.2%
12.7%
9.0%
7.9%
7.4%
Entertainment & 6.3%
Relaxation
Know about other
countries
Education &
Guidance
Sit & Watch with
family
Time Pass
News &
Information
Know more about
Pakistan
Figure 5.3: Purpose of Watching Cable Television
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5.7.1 Purpose of Watching Cable Television and Level of Viewing
Table 5.11 exposes the association between the purpose of watching cable television and
level of viewing as those who watch cable television for the purpose of entertainment and
relaxation constitute 1/2 of heavy viewers. This is followed by those whose purpose is to
know about other countries and their culture. Those who consider cable television
watching merely as a source of time passing are the third highest number of heavy
viewers.
In contrast, the highest number of light viewers is those who watch cable
television for education and guidance.
Table 5.11: Purpose of Watching Cable Television and Level of Viewing
Heavy Moderate Light Total
Purpose of
Watching
f % f % f % f (%)
Entertainment and
relaxation
128 49.42 22 28.21 12 12.64 162 (37.5)
Know about other
countries and their
culture
68 26.3 11 14.1 4 4.2 83 (19.2)
Education and
guidance
17 6.6 15 19.2 23 24.2 55 (12.7)
Sit and watch with
family
10 3.9 8 10.3 21 22.1 39 (9)
Pastime 18 6.9 5 6.7 11 11.6 34 (7.9)
News and
information
6 2.3 6 7.7 20 21.1 32 (7.4)
Know more about
Pakistan
12 4.6 11 14.1 4 4.2 27 (6.3)
Total 259 100.0 78 100.0 95 100.0 432 (100)
95
5.8 Preferences for Channels
Respondents were asked to enlist their preferred cable television channels; local or
foreign. They were allowed to make multiple choices. The accumulated response put the
total number of preferred channels to only 10 – six foreign and four Pakistani. Their
responses are mentioned in Table 5.12 (see Appendix I) and also illustrated through
Figure 5.4.
The first overall preference was Star Plus, a foreign channel. This was followed
by Geo, ARY and Indus Vision, all Pakistani channels. Western channels like Star
Movies, HBO and BBC were the next preference. Geo shows Pakistani, Indian and
western cultures, which is a strong reason for its popularity. For foreign approval, it
shows programmes with an international approach. It dominates Pakistani electronic
media scene because it is bolder than the official Ptv and broader than contemporary
networks in private sector.
An interesting thing to be noted is that ‘Star Plus’ topped all categories of
channels. Nevertheless, its popularity was attributed to the dominant Indian content/stuff
and Hindi language which is close to Urdu, having ample chances of influencing viewers.
Star Movies, HBO and BBC present western content/stuff which pours western culture in
the minds of their viewers.
78.9%
69.7%
18.5%
19.2%
22.0%
17.8%
33.6%
12.5%
17.1%
7.2%
Star Plus
GEO
HBO
Star Movies
Indus Vision
PTV World
ARY
ZEE TV
BBC
Sony
Fig 5.4: Preferences for Channels
96
5.8.1 Channel Preferences and Level of Viewing
It is evident from the Table 5.13 that respondents of all categories i.e. heavy, moderate
and light viewers’ first preference was ‘Star Plus’, a foreign channel. However, Pakistani
channels Geo and ARY come second and third in the category of most popular channels
but in comparison of viewing hours, Geo got the highest percentage of the light viewers
whereas ARY got the highest percentage of the moderate viewers. Significantly, these
channels present dramas and other entertainment programmes. Moderate and light
viewers go for the western channels than the heavy watchers.
Table 5.13: Channel Preferences and Level of Viewing
Heavy Moderate Light Total
Channel
Preferences
f % f % f % f (%)
Star Plus 119 82.6 117 80.7 105 73.4 341 (78.9)
Star Movies 23 16.0 27 18.6 33 23.1 83 (19.2)
HBO 22 15.3 32 22.1 26 18.2 80 (18.5)
BBC 32 22.2 20 13.8 22 15.4 74 (17.1)
ZEE TV 19 13.2 19 13.1 16 11.2 54 (12.5)
Sony 10 6.9 12 8.37 9.0 6.3 31 (7.2)
Geo 98 68.1 99 68.3 104 72.7 301 (69.7)
ARY 40 27.8 62 42.8 43 30.1 145 (33.6)
Indus Vision 26 18.1 34 23.4 35 24.5 95 (22.0)
Ptv World 27 18.8 25 17.2 25 17.5 77 (17.8)
Base-multiple responses were allowed so the sum may add up to more than the actual
number.
97
5.9 Respondents Preferred Programmes
Figure 5.5 and Table 5.14 (see Appendix I) show respondents’ preferred programmes on
cable television. The most favourite programme of the highest percentage of respondents
was drama followed by movies and music. The least interesting was cooking. This shows
that respondents are receiving foreign culture through entertainment programmes
presented by the top favoured television channels. This also hints at the possibilities of
accepting Indian and western culture and role or lifestyle of women in those societies
through these programmes comprising drama (soap operas), music and movies.
76.2%
34.3%
26.9%
16.0%
25.5%
9.5% Dramas
Movies
Music
Religious
Information
Cooking
Figure 5.5: Respondents Preferred Programmes.
5.9.1 Preferred Programmes and Level of Viewing
Table 5.15 indicates that drama was the first preference of all types of viewers. Movies
were the second choice of heavy and moderate viewers whereas light viewers gave
second priority to information programmes. Drama was an across the board first choice
because of their short duration. Movies were the second choice of heavy and moderate
viewers because of their willingness to sit before television for a longer period of time
which the light viewers do not, making information-related programmes as the latter’s
second option.
98
Table 5.15: Respondents’ Preferred Programmes and Level of Viewing
Heavy viewers
Moderate
viewers
Light viewers
Total
Preferred
Programmes
f % f % f % f (%)
Drama 119 82.6 111 76.6 99 69.2 329 (76.2)
Movies 58 40.3 47 32.4 43 30.1 148 (34.3)
Music 43 29.9 31 21.4 42 29.4 116 (26.9)
Religious 23 16.0 24 16.6 22 15.4 69 (16.0)
Information 28 19.4 37 25.5 45 31.5 110 (25.5)
Cooking 15 10.4 15 10.3 11 7.7.8 41 (9.5)
Base-multiple responses were allowed so the sum may add up to more than the actual
number.
5.10 Preference of Watching Television
Figure 5.6 and Table 5.16 (see Appendix I) indicate that 51 per cent of respondents watch
cable television with their families whereas the remaining 48.6 per cent alone. The
difference is narrow but it indicates that a growing number of people can separately watch
channels of their choice – thanks mainly to the availability of more television sets in a
house and a variety of programmes or channels through cable television. This is a major
shift from the initial practice wherein an entire family would watch the only available
channel in Pakistan, Ptv; even if it had more than one television set.
48.6%
51.4%
ALONE
WITH
FAMILY
Figure 5.6: Preference of Watching Television
99
5.10.1 Preference of Watching Cable Television and Level of Viewing
Table 5.17 states that an equal number of heavy viewers prefer to watch cable television
with family or alone. Majority moderate viewers prefer to watch cable television alone
and light viewers with family.
Table 5.17: Preference of Watching Cable Television and Level of Viewing
Heavy viewers
Moderate
viewers
Light viewers Total
You watch
f % f % f % f (%)
Alone 72 50 75 51.7 63 44.1 210 (48.6)
With family 72 50 70 48.3 80 55.9 222 (51.4)
Total 144 100.0 145 100.0 143 100.0 432 (100)
5.11 Remote Control
Figure 5.7 and Table 5.18 (see Appendix I) the show that in most cases television’s
remote was controlled by men (47 percent). This indicates male dominance in Pakistani
society. Remote is less controlled by women because they need to attend the family when
its members watch television jointly.
10.2%
16.2% 47.0%
6.9%
19.7%
BY CHILDERN
BY MEN
BY RESPONDENT
BY OLD AGE
BY YOUNGERS
Figure 5.7: Remote Control
100
5.11.1 Remote Control and Level of Viewing
Table 5.19 indicates that men control the remote in homes of heavy, moderate and light
viewing respondents (women) when the family watch cable television jointly.
Respondents of heavy and light categories of viewing come second with regard to
controlling the remote. This is so because they manage to control the remote when men
are away. In the moderate category, youngsters control the remote after men, apparently
because women allow their young children to watch programmes of their choice.
Table 5.19: Remote Control and Level of Viewing
Heavy viewers
Moderate
viewers
Light viewers
Total
Remote is
controlled
by
f % f % f % f (%)
Children 11 7.6 17 11.7 16 11.2 44 (10.2)
Men 69 47.9 67 46.2 67 46.9 203 (47.0)
Respondent 30 20.8 14 9.7 26 18.2 70 (16.2)
Old age 9 6.3 13 9.0 8 5.6 30 (6.9)
Youngsters 25 17.4 34 23.4 26 18.2 85 (19.7)
Total 144 100 145 100 143 100 432 (100)
5.12 Favourite Time of Watching Cable Television
Figure 5.8 and Table 5.20 (see Appendix I) reflect that a majority of the respondents
watch cable television after 7:00 pm which also justifies heavy viewing of Star Plus
channels’ drama serials presented between 7:00 pm to 11:00 pm. The favourite time of
watching cable television for both the working women as well as house managers was
again after 7:00 pm. This also indicates that the free evening time, suitable for attending
family and socializing, is being spent in front of television sets.
101
10.2%
12.0%
77.8%
BEFORE 2 PM
2 PM TO 7 PM
AFTER 7 PM
Figure 5.8: Favourite Time of Watching Cable Television
5.12.1 Favourite Time of Watching Cable Television and Level of Viewing
Table 5.21 indicates that majority of heavy, moderate and light viewers prefer to watch
cable television programmes after 7:00 pm. Only 14.6 per cent heavy viewers prefer to
watch cable television before 2:00 pm. 17.2 per cent of moderate viewers’ second time
preference is from 2:00 pm to 7:00 pm. The table establishes that 7:00 pm to onward is
the prime cable television watching time for all sorts of respondents.
Table 5. 21: Favourite Time of Watching Cable Television and Level of Viewing
Heavy viewers
Moderate viewers
Light viewers
Favourite Total
time of
watching f % f % f % f (%)
Before 2:00
PM
21 14.8 13 9 10 7.0 44 (10.2)
2:00 PM To
7:00 PM
16 11.1 25 17.2 11 7.7 52 (12.0)
After 7:00
PM
107 74.3 107 73.8 122 85.3 336 (77.8)
Total
144 100 145 100 143 100 432 (100)
102
5.13 Restriction of Watching Cable Television
Table 5.22 reveals the responses of restrictions on women for watching cable television
programmes. It also indicates the restricted time slots for women. It is clear from the table
that 296 women (68.5 per cent) do not have any type of restrictions on watching cable
television whereas 77 women (17.8 percent) have to face certain restrictions. When they
were asked about the restricted programmes and reasons of restrictions imposed on them
for watching cable television, the response shows that majority is being restricted to
watch movies followed by stage dramas and music programmes. The main reasons of
restriction pointed out by respondents include vulgarity in programmes, their work and
religion. Regarding restricted time, majority of the respondents expressed that they were
disallowed to watch cable television at night because of strict family traditions. Some
avoid watching cable television at night to stick to their reading habits.
103
Table 5.22: Restriction of Watching Cable Television
Restriction Category f %
Yes 77 17.8
Don’t know 59 13.7
Restricted cable
television
time/programme
for women Not at all 296 68.5
Total 432 100.0
Not applicable 354 81.9
Stage dramas 31 7.2
Movies 41 9.5
If yes then women
restricted
programme
Music 6 1.4
Total 432 100.0
Not Applicable 354 81.9
Working hours 30 6.9
Vulgarity 39 9.0
Reasons
Away from
religion
9 2.1
Total 432 100.0
Not applicable 354 81.9
Night 58 13.4
Evening 16 3.7
Time
Morning 4 .9
Total 432 100.0
Not applicable 354 81.9
Late night 27 6.3
Reading books 2 .5
Time reasons
Restricted
environment
49 11.3
Total 432 100.0
104
5.13.1 Restricted Cable Television Channel, Programmes and Time for
Men
Table 5.23 shows that men do not have any restriction in terms of watching cable
television as they are considered mature and independent as is the peculiarity of a maledominated
society. In contrast, the percentage of women being restricted was 17.8 as
discussed in Table 9.
Table 5.23: Restricted Cable Television Channels, Programmes and Time for Men
Restriction
Category f %
Restricted cable
television channels,
programmes and
time for men
No restriction 432 100.0
If no restriction
than why
Mature and
independent
432 100.0
5.14 Women’s Right to Watch Cable Television
Figure 5.9 and Table 5.24 (see Appendix I) show the responses of women to their right to
watch cable television. It is evident from the table that majority of the respondents (253 or
58.6 percent) have less right to watch cable television than men. This shows
discrimination of human rights and gender bias to approach the communication and
information technology. This again supports the concept of male dominance and authority
at home and in the society.
0.2%
58.6%
41.20%
NO
LESS THAN MEN
EQUAL TO MEN
Figure 5.9: Women’s Right to Watch Cable Television
105
5.15 Recreation
Figure 5.10 and Table 5.25 (see Appendix I) indicate that the first priority of majority of
the respondents was to enjoy cable television programmes during their free time, making
other healthy activities such as outing, games and book-reading second and third choices.
This shows that cable television has become an important part of women’s lives residing
in Lahore, Pakistan.
55.6%
13.4%
31.0% TV
BOOK
READING
OUTING OR
GAME
Figure 5.10: Recreation
5.16 Hurdle in Domestic and Other Activities
Figure 5.11 and Table 5.26 (see Appendix I) and indicate that for majority of the
respondents cable television is a hurdle in the way of their domestic and other activities
whereas 10 percent were not clear whether their activities were being affected by it or not.
33%
10%
57%
DISAGREE
UNDECIDED
AGREE
Figure 5.11: Hurdle in Domestic and other Activities
106
5.16.1 Domestic Activities and Level of Viewing
Out of the total 432 respondents, 243 have mentioned that their activities are adversely
affected due to cable television viewing. It is clear from the Table 5.27 that majority of
heavy viewers (50 percent) were agreed that their domestic and personal activities are
affecting due to cable television watching whereas only 10 percent of light viewers have
the same opinion.
Table 5.27: Hurdles in Domestic and other Activities and Level of Viewing
5.17 Affected Activities of Respondents
Table 5.29 elaborates what types of activities are being affected. It shows that the cable
television viewing had affected majority of the respondents’ (95.5 percent) newspapers
and magazines reading habit which is followed by movie watching in cinema houses and
listening to the music. Further, 153 (63.0 percent) respondents accepted that their cooking
and food serving time had been disturbed. Table 5.29 and Figure 5.12 shows a strong
relationship between the duration of watching cable television and its impact on the
domestic and outside activities of the respondents. Heavy viewing heavily affects
activities of respondents falling in this category. The affects are moderate for moderate
viewers and light for light viewers. The result confirms the hypothesis that the more one
watches cable television, the more one is affected by it.
Heavy viewers
Moderate viewers
Light viewers
Domestic Total
activities
effected
f % f % f % f (%)
Agree 121 50.0 96 40.0 26 10.0 243 (56.3)
Undecided 5 11.1 26 57.1 14 31.1 45 (10.4)
Disagree 18 12.5 23 16.0 103 72.0 144 (33.3)
Total 144 24.5 145 37.7 143 37.7 432 (100)
107
Table 5.29: Domestic Activities and Level of Viewing
Heavy viewers
Moderate
viewers
Light viewers
Effected Total
domestic
activities
f % f % f % f (%)
Cooking
and serving
time
79 51.3 63 41.91 12 7.79 154 (100)
newspapers
and
magazines
reading
116 50.0 93
40.09
23 9.91
232 (100)
Listening to
music
102 48.34 85 40.28 24 11.37
211 (100)
Going for
outing
27 56.25 15 31.25 6 12.5
48 (100)
Going to
movies
111 49.33 88 39.11 26 11.56
225 (100)
Going for
shopping
36 51.43 27 38.57 7 10.0 70 (100)
Reading
books
88 45.13 77 39.49 30 15.38
195 (100)
Prayers and
reading
religious
books
61 50.0 48 39.34 13 10.66
122 (100)
Base-multiple responses were allowed so the sum may add up to more than the actual
number.
108
Effected Activities for Vrious Levels of Viewers
51.30
50.00
48.34
56.25
49.33
51.43
45.13
50.00
40.91
40.09
40.28
31.25
39.11
38.57
39.49
39.34
7.79
9.91
11.37
12.50
11.56
10.00
10.66
15.38
0.00
10.00
20.00
30.00
40.00
50.00
60.00
cokking & serving time
newspapers Mag Reading time
liste ning t o music
going for outing
going to mo nies
going for sh oppin g
reading books
pryers & reading religious books
Effected Activities
Level of Effectivness
Heavy Viewers
Mod viewers
Light Viewers
Figure 5.12: Domestic and other Activities and Level of Viewing.
5.18 Interaction Patterns
Figure 5.13 and Table 5.30 (see Appendix I) show how the interaction patterns of the
target audience were changing. It indicates that majority of the respondents’ interaction
time with their relatives, friends and neighbours was declining because of watching cable
television. Half of the respondents do not like to welcome guests and dislike interference
by family members during watching cable television. However, majority of the
respondents said that did go out with family during the prime time of Television
watching.
109
2.23
2.04
2.21 2.16 2.09
1.6
2.28
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
Relative
Neighbour
Friends
Visit
Not like Guest
Not like family Interference
Less outing
Figure 5.13: Interaction Patterns
5.18.1 Interaction with Husband and Children
Table 5.31 shows that the husband-wife interaction time too is on the decline because of
cable television watching. Almost ½ of the total married respondents were agreed that
their interaction time is decreasing. Data shows another important fact that majority of
mother was disagreed with the statement that their interaction time with children is
decreasing.
Table 5.31: Interaction with Husband and Children
Agree
Undecided
Disagree
Variable
f % f % f %
Mean
Valid
Respondents
Husband-
Wife
Interaction
Time
Decreased
138 47.1 44 15.0 111 37.9 1.5 293
Mother-
Child
Interaction
Time
Decreased
96 36.4 33 12.5 135 51.1 1.3 264
110
5.19 Appearance and Style
In the Figure 5.14 mean values of the responses are shown. Figure and Table 5.32 (see
Appendix I) indicates that majority of the respondents do take television characters as
role model and want to copy them in appearance and style. Interestingly, majority of the
respondents disagreed that they did relate the characters to their own lives despite they do
copy in more than one area. This shows that the respondents just follow the outlook of the
characters with respect to lifestyle and not themselves as a whole. The reason for
watching cable television is entertainment but the influence as a result of it is broader
lifestyle outlook.
2.06 2.15
2.6
2.39
1.91
2.3
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
TV characters as role model
Look like TV characters
Wear jewellery
Emulate accent
Relate with TV character
Dress and makeup
Figure 5.14: Appearance and Style
5.20 Cultural Practices
5.20.1 Food Habits
Figure 5.55 and Table 5.33 (see Appendix I) and show that majority of the respondents
have started trying western dishes they learnt from cable television. The ratio for Indian
dishes is zero mainly because of the reason that Indian channels do not concentrate much
on cooking as their main thrust is on soap operas. Nevertheless, an overwhelming
majority of respondents considered cable television as an effective source of learning
111
cooking. Over three-fifth of the respondents conceded that they dine in front of television
and discuss television programmes more than their own issues during meals. It indicates a
change in their eating style and discussion patterns due to cable television.
2.34
1.09
2.31 2.14
2.43
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
Addition of western dishes
Addition of Indian dishes
Dine against TV
Discussion TV programmes
Effec tive source new dish..
Figure 5.15: Culture Practices (Food)
5.20.2 Dress
Figure 5.16 and Table 5.34 (see Appendix I) indicates that one-forth of the respondents
agreed that they like to wear casual western dress because it is comfortable. But an
overwhelming majority of them replied in negative. Significantly enough, nearly 98
percent of the respondents said they did not wear casual Indian dress. 35 percent said they
wore Indian party dress mainly ‘Sari’. Similarly, only a fraction of the respondents said
they wore western party dress. This they may be doing because of the social taboos about
western dress which they do not wear while attending parties. Another reason could be
the fact that oriental party wear is more colourful and lavish which women yearn for.
81.5 percent of the respondents conceded that cable television is the best source of
learning about fashion trends. Interestingly, the respondents’ style of donning causal
western dress in their routine lives and wearing oriental apparels for parties match the
dress trends shown in the most favoured Star Plus soap operas.
112
1.6
1.06
1.97
1.35
2.44
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
CASUAL DRESS WESTERN
Indian dress casually
PARTY DRESS INDIAN
PARTY DRESS WESTERN
Effective source of dresses...
Figure 5.16: Cultural Practices (Dress)
5.20.3 Language
Figure 5.17 and Table 5.35 (see Appendix I) indicate that cable television is creating a
significant impact on the language of the respondents. Vast majority (three-fourth of the
respondents) inclined to using foreign languages (English and Hindi) in their daily
routine. They considered television as the best source of learning the other languages.
Four-fifth of the respondents were learning English whereas more then three-fifth of the
respondents were learning other languages through cable television.
2.57
2.7
2.4
2.58 2.54
2.8
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9
LIKE TO USE OTHER ...
Usage of English words in c...
Usage of Hindi words in cau..
TV as source of learning la...
learning English language
Learning Hindi language
Figure 5.17: Cultural Practices (Language)
113
5.20.4 Traditions
Figure 5.18 and Table 5.36 (see Appendix I) and indicate that majority of the respondents
(51.2 percent) were celebrating Indian traditions in marriage ceremonies where as threefifth
of the respondents were likely to celebrate Valentine’s Day. The result shows that
adoption level of some of the western and Indian traditions is increasing in our society.
2.03
1.02 1.03 1
1.16 1.19
2.19
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
Celebrate Indian marriage t...
Celebrate Rakhi
Celebrate Holi
Celebrate Karwa Chode
Celebrate Valantine Day
Celebrate Halloween
Celebrate Bonfire
Figure 5.18: Cultural Practices (Traditions)
5.20.5 Religion
Figure 5.19 and Table 5.37 (see Appendix I) and indicate that majority of the respondents
(three-fourth) are dependant on television for the religious information whereas small
percentage of respondents agreed that their religiosity level is being effected by
television.
1.6
2.63
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
TV is best source of infor...
Religiosity level decreased
Figure 5.19: Cultural Practices (Religion)
114
5.21 Personal and Household Expenditure
Figure 5.20 and Table 5.38 (see Appendix I) indicate that cable television is also
disturbing the budget of the families. More than three-fifth of respondents were of the
view that their expenditure has increased whereas two-fifth of the respondents agreed that
they have developed the tendency to increase their earnings to meet their high budget.
2.1 2
2.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
Dressing (cloth, jewelry, m...
House hold expenditure
Tendency to be an earning...
Figure 5.20: Personal and Household Expenditure
5.22 Role of Pakistani Women
Figure 5.21 and Table 5.39 (see Appendix I) indicate that viewing of cable television is
also changing the attitude of the respondents towards the perceived role of women in the
society. For all the dependent variables, a degree of agreement was evident. Majority of
the respondents were of the view that women and men both should equally share in
household chores and looking after of children and women should take active part in
decision making. A vast majority (70.8 percent) agreed that a girl should have right to
love marriage and working women and housewife should have equal respect, which is
purely western culture. This implies that womenfolk in Pakistan seem to be changing
faster.
115
2.1
1.97 1.91 1.96
2.29 2.32
2.48 2.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
looking after of children and house hold
to earn for home is equal r esponsibility...
Right to be career women
Women should struggle for her rights
Single women should have right to live ...
Women should take active part in dec isi..
Working women and housewife should...
A girl should have right of love marriage
Figure 5.21: Role of Pakistani Women
.
116
Part II - BIVARIATE ANALYSIS
5.23 Hypothesis Testing: Exposure and Effect Association
Pakistan experienced a rapid and unregulated growth of cable television network in the
late 90s. This network was regulated by government in year 2000 through Pakistan
Telecommunication Authority (PTA). In 2002, PEMRA was formed and started working
to regulate cable television operations in the country. Pakistan witnessed a quick
expansion of cable television network and viewers. Most of the channels provided by the
cable operators were Indian and western. These channels faced criticism that they can
cultivate foreign values particularly the western and Indian among the viewers. This
study targeted to evaluate the effects of cable television viewing on women’s life.
Women selected for the study were between 18 – 40 years of age.
Sample data has been analyzed separately to examine each hypothesis. As the
study evaluated the association between the exposure to cable television and change in
lifestyles of women, therefore statistical tool Chi-Square was used. Each dependant
variable was operationalized into set parameters and the answers were obtained on Likert
3– point scale as mentioned below:
Opinion Value
Agree 3
Undecided 2
Disagree 1
For each respondent, mean response score on each question was calculated with
respect to the selected group or category. If the mean score was close to 3 it indicated
change in life patterns and if it was close to 1 it indicated rejection to change. In order to
have a criterion for classification of respondents according to their opinion following cut
of values are used:
1.0-------1.5 Rejection to change lifestyle
1.6-------2.5 Undecided
2.6-------3.0 Acceptance for change in lifestyle
Since the response to each question is likely to differ according to the level of viewing
the statistical tool known as Chi-Square is used to compare the mean scores of a group of
questions. The results of Chi-Square are shown in subsequent tables.
117
5.24 Changes in Lifestyle
Figure 5.22: Changes in Lifestyle
For the purpose of this study, the ‘change in lifestyle of women’ has been conceptualized
as having six factors: domestic and other activities, family and social interaction, personal
appearance and style, cultural practices and role of Pakistani women in society. Each of
these factors was operationalized into a set of dependant variables. The dimension of
domestic and other activities has 1 indicator, family and social interaction has 9
indicators, personal appearance and style has 6 items, cultural practices has 27 indicators
and role of Pakistani women in society has 8 indicators.
5.25 Hypothesis Testing - Results
The results of Chi-Square for each hypothesis are summarized in the following section in
sequence of the hypothesis being tested.
5.26 Major Hypothesis
Greater the exposure to cable television greater the effect on the lives of women in
Lahore, Pakistan.
Change
in
lifestyle
Domestic
and other
activities
(1
indicator)
Family and
other social
interaction
(9
indicators)
Personal
appearance
and style
(6
indicators)
Cultural
practices
(25
indicators)
Personal
and
domestics
expenditure
(3
1ndicators)
Role of
Pakistani
women in
society
(8
Indicators)
118
5.26.1 Sub-Hypothesis 1
Heavy viewers of cable television experience greater degree of effect on their
domestic and other activities than the moderate and light viewers.
Chi-Square value in the Table 5.40 shows that null hypothesis is rejected at 5%
level of significance. Therefore, an alternative hypothesis of significant association
between the level of cable television viewing and effect on domestic and other activities
of women is proved. The percentage values as seen in the Table 5.41 also indicate that
among the heavy viewers there is high percentage of those who experienced disturbance
in their domestic and other activities. On the other hand, among the light cable television
viewers there is high percentage of those who have a low disturbance level. It is
concluded that there is a significant association between the levels of cable television
viewing and levels of effect on domestic and other activities. It implies that high cable
television viewing is affecting domestic and other activities of women in Pakistan.
Table 5.40:Chi-Square Test for Association: Exposure and Disturbance in Domestic
and other Activities
Variables
Chi-square
D.F
P-value
Conclusion
Pearson Chi-Square
169.992
4
.000
Significant
Total Respondents
432 - - -
Table 5.41: Level of Disturbance in Domestic and other Activities by Level of
Viewing
Level of viewing
Heavy viewers Moderate viewers Light viewers
Total
Level of effect
f % f % f % f (%)
Low 18 12.5 23 15.9 103 72.0 144 (33.3)
Medium 5 3.5 26 17.9 14 9.8 45 (10.4)
High 121 84.0 96 66.2 26 18.2 243 (56.3)
Total 144 100 145 100 143 100 432 (100.0)
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5.26.2 Sub-Hypothesis 2
Heavy viewers of cable television experience a greater degree of change on their
family and social interaction patterns than the moderate and light viewers.
Patterns of interactions were subdivided into two groups i.e. family and social.
The first one included interaction of the viewers with their families i.e. husbands and
children and the second group included relatives, neighbours and friends. Among the first
group the null hypothesis was rejected at 5% level of significance for interactions with
husbands as indicated in Table 5.42. In the case of children the null hypothesis was
however accepted indicating that the interaction with children was not affected (Table
5.44). Chi-Square value shows in the table 5.46 that null hypothesis regarding the second
group of social interactions was rejected at 5% level of significance. An alternate
hypothesis of significant association between levels of cable television viewing and
levels of social interaction is accepted. The percentage values, as seen in the table 5.47,
indicate that among the heavy viewers there is high percentage of women having reduced
social interactions. On the other hand, among the light cable television viewers there is
high percentage of those whose social interaction has not been affected. Therefore, it was
concluded that there is a significant relationship between the levels of cable television
viewing and levels of social interaction. It proves that high cable television viewing has
an impact on social interaction patterns. However family interaction patterns of women in
Lahore, Pakistan have not disturbed much.
Table 5.42:Chi-Square Test for Association: Exposure and Effect on Husband and
Wife Interaction
Variables
Chi-Square
D.F
P-value
Conclusion
Pearson Chi-Square
31.124
6
.000
Significant
Total Respondents
293
- - -
120
Table 5.43: Level of Interaction of Husband and Wife by Level of Viewing
Level of viewing
Heavy viewers Moderate viewers Light viewers
Total
Level of effect
f % f % f % f (%)
Low 7 4.9 23 15.9 14 9.8 44 (10.2)
Medium 26 18.1 48 33.1 37 25.9 111 (31.9)
High 66 45.8 28 19.3 44 30.8 138 (31.9)
Not Applicable 45 31.1 46 31.7 48 33.6 139 (32.2)
Total 144 100 145 100 143 100 432 (100.0)
Table 5.44:Chi-Square Test for Association: Exposure and Effect on Mother and
Child Interaction
Variables
Chi-Square
D.F
P-value
Conclusion
Pearson Chi-Square
3.122
6
0.538
Insignificant
Total Respondents
264
- - -
Table 5.45: Level of Mother-Child Interaction by Level of Viewing
Level of viewing
Heavy viewers Moderate viewers Light viewers
Total
Level of effect
f % f % f % f (%)
Low 38 26.6 24 16.6 34 23.7 96 (22.3)
Medium 10 6.9 18 12.4 5 3.5 33 (7.6)
High 45 31.1 44 30.3 46 32.3 135 (31.3)
Not Applicable 51 35.4 59 40.7 58 40.6 168 (38.8)
Total 144 100 145 100 143 100 432
(100.0)
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Table 5.46:Chi-Square Test for Association: Exposure and Effect on Social
Interaction
Variables
Chi-square
D.F
P-value
Conclusion
Pearson Chi-Square
88.731
4
.000
Significant
Total Respondents
432
- - -
Table 5.47: Level of Viewing by Level of Social Interaction
Level of viewing
Heavy viewers Moderate viewers Light viewers
Total
Level of effect
f % f % f % f (%)
Low 11 7.6 29 20.0 73 51.0 113 (26.2)
Medium 38 26.4 63 43.4 58 40.6 159 (36.8)
High 95 66.0 53 36.6 12 8.4 160 (37.0)
Total 144 100 145 100 143 100 432 (100.0)
5.26.3 Sub-Hypothesis 3
Heavy viewers of cable television tend to show a greater degree of acceptance of
television characters’ appearance and style than the moderate and light viewers.
Chi-Square value in the Table 5.48 indicates that null hypothesis is rejected at
5% level of significance. Therefore, an alternate hypothesis of a significant association
between level of cable television viewing and level of acceptance of television
character’s appearance and style is acknowledged. Percentage values as seen in the Table
5.49 indicate that among heavy viewers of cable television, majority of the respondents
imitate television characters’ appearance and style. On the contrary, among light cable
television viewers there is high percentage of those who have denied imitating television
characters’ appearance and style. It confirms that there is a significant association
between the levels of cable television viewing and levels of adoption of television
character’s appearance and style. It was therefore, concluded that high television viewing
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has significant impact on appearance and style of women residing in Lahore, Pakistan,
than light viewing.
Table 5.48:Chi-Square Test for Association: Exposure and Effect on Appearance
and Style
Variables
Chi-Square
D.F
P-value
Conclusion
Pearson Chi-Square
152.499
4
.000
Significant
Total Respondents
432
- - -
Table 5.49: Change in Appearance and Style by Level of Viewing
Level of viewing
Heavy viewers Moderate viewers Light viewers
Total
Level of effect
f % f % f % f (%)
Low 4 2.8 12 8.3 77 53.8 93 (21.5)
Medium 44 30.6 63 43.4 43 30.1 150 (34.7)
High 96 f66.7 70 48.3 23 16.1 189 (43.8)
Total 144 100 145 100 143 100 432 (100.0)
5.26.4 Sub-Hypothesis 4
Heavy viewers of cable television experience greater degree of effect on their
cultural practices than the moderate and light viewers.
Chi-Square value in the Table 5.50 indicates that null hypothesis is rejected at 5%
level of significance. Hence, an alternate hypothesis of significant association between
level of cable television viewing and level of effect on cultural practices stands proved.
Percentage values as seen in the Table 5.51 also indicate that among heavy viewers of
cable television, majority of the respondents have had effect on their cultural practices as
compared to moderate and light viewers. On the basis of above result it was concluded
that there is a significant association between the levels of cable television viewing and
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levels of effect on cultural practices. It is thus verified that high television viewing is
impacting cultural practices in Lahore, Pakistan, and women are accepting western and
Indian culture.
Table 5.50:Chi-Square Test for Association: Exposure and Effect on Cultural
Practices
Variables
Chi-square
D.F
P-value
Conclusion
Pearson Chi-Square
332.246
4
.000
Significant
Total Respondents
432
- - -
Table 5.51: Level of Cultural Practices by Level of Viewing
Level of viewing
Heavy viewers Moderate viewers Light viewers
Total
Level of effect
f % f % f % f (%)
Low 0 0.00 18 12.4 97 67.8 115 (26.6)
Medium 47 32.6 114 78.6 45 31.5 206 (47.7)
High 97 67.4 13 9.0 1 0.7 111 (25.7)
Total 144 100 145 100 143 100 432 (100.0)
5.26.5 Sub-Hypothesis 5
Heavy viewers of cable television have experience a greater degree of effect on their
domestic and personal expenditures than the moderate and light viewers.
Chi-Square value in the Table 5.52 shows that null hypothesis of no association
between the dependant and independent variables has been rejected at 5% level of
significance. An alternate hypothesis of significant association between levels of cable
television viewing and levels of effect on their domestic and personal expenditure is
accepted. Percentage values as seen in the Table 5.53 indicate that among heavy viewers
there is high percentage of those who have shown effect on their domestic and personal
expenditures. On the other hand, among light cable television viewers there is high
percentage of those who have low effect on their domestic and personal expenditures.
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Therefore, it is proved that there is a significant association between the levels of cable
television viewing and levels of effect on their domestic and personal expenditure. It was
concluded that high cable television viewing is impacting the domestic and personal
expenditures of women in Lahore, Pakistan.
Table 5.52:Chi-Square Test for Association: Exposure and Effect on Personal and
Domestic Expenditure
Variables
Chi-square
D.F
P-value
Conclusion
Pearson Chi-Square 174.543
4
.000
Significant
Total Respondents 432
- - -
Table 5.53: Level of Personal and Domestic Expenditure by Level of Viewing
Level of viewing
Heavy viewers Moderate viewers Light viewers
Total
Level of effect
f % f % f % f (%)
Low 13 9.0 51 35.2 100 69.9 164 (38.0)
Medium 36 25.0 67 46.2 31 21.7 134 (31.0)
High 95 66.0 27 18.6 12 8.4 134 (31.0)
Total 144 100 145 100 143 100 432 (100.0)
5.26.6 Sub-Hypothesis 6
Heavy viewers of cable television tend to show a greater degree of acceptance of
roles of women as portrayed on Indian and western channels as compared to the
moderate and light viewers.
Chi-Square value in the Table 5.54 shows that null hypothesis is rejected at 5%
level of significance. An alternate hypothesis of association between level of cable
television viewing and level of acceptance of role of western and urban Indian women
stands proved. Percentage values as seen in the Table 5.55 also indicate that among heavy
viewers there is high percentage of those who have shown acceptance of role of western
125
and urban Indian women. On the other hand among light cable television viewers there is
high percentage of those who have high acceptance of role of western and urban Indian
women. It is accepted that there is a significant association between the levels of cable
television viewing and levels of acceptance of roles of women as portrayed on Indian and
western channels. It was concluded that high cable television viewing is affecting the
social role of women in Lahore, Pakistan.
Table 5.54:Chi-Square Test for Association: Exposure and Effect on Social Role of
Pakistani Women
Variables
Chi-square
D.F
P-value
Conclusion
Pearson Chi-Square 111.659
4
.000
Significant
Total Respondents 432
- - -
Table 5.55: Level of Change in Social Role of Pakistani Women by Level of Viewing
Level of viewing
Heavy viewers Moderate viewers Light viewers
Total
Level of effect
f % f % f % f (%)
Low 11 7.6 27 18.6 67 46.9 105 (24.3)
Medium 33 22.9 67 46.2 53 37.1 153 (35.4)
High 100 69.4 51 35.2 23 16.1 174 (40.3)
Total 144 100 145 100 143 100 432
(100.0)
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PART III – DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
The government of Pakistan liberalized electronic media policy in 2000 and allowed
cable operators to work legally. Consequently, the cable industry has grown up rapidly
and started transmitting satellite foreign television channels along with local channels
through their network. The number of subscribers increased swiftly and exposed viewers
to the western and Indian values and norms. This has not only broken the monopoly of
the state-owned electronic media in the country and provided variety in channels and
programmes but has also raised concern over its effects on viewers. Hence, this study was
carried out to probe the effects of cable television on women in Pakistan.
The basic target of this study was to find out, through the bivariate analysis,
whether changes in life patterns of women in Lahore, Pakistan, are linked to their
exposure to the cable television channels or not. The basis of this study was the
confirmation by earlier researchers throughout the world that television does leave an
impact on socio-economic and cultural aspects of lives of its viewers i.e. Jamias (1993),
Goonasekera (1993), Shariffadeen (1995), Ali (2001), Tariq (2004), etc. To pursue the
main theme, the researcher assessed Indian and western channels impact through cable
television on different aspects of women’s lives e.i. family and social interaction patterns,
appearance and style, cultural practices i.e. food, language, dress, traditions and religion,
domestic and personal expenditure and on their overall role in society.
The study targeted women aged between 18 to 40 years. This criterion was further
divided into three categories -- heavy, moderate and light viewers instead of two because
the main aim of the study was to compare two extremes i.e. heavy and light viewers. In
all, 432 women of the stated categories responded to the survey. Lahore was selected as
the field of study. It is the second largest city of Pakistan and cosmopolitan in nature.
Being a metropolis of the country’s largest province Punjab, the population of Lahore is
quite varied, from poor to rich, illiterate to highly educated and from slump dwellers to an
affluent living in posh colonies. Lahore has retained its link to its past through its historic
monuments and also boasts of modern buildings and shopping malls. Lahore’s population
is heterogeneous, comprising people from all regions and ethnic groups like Punjabis,
Seraikis, Pathan, Balochis, Sindhis, Kashmiris, etc.
Dominant religion is Islam but people of other followings like Christianity also
reside here. Above all, Lahore is also known as nation’s hub of media and cultural
activities. All national dailies, FM radios and television channels have their offices in
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Lahore. As many as 68 head-end licensees are active and 276 loop-holders are
successfully handling the cable proportion and serving 3.5 million subscribers in Lahore.
Every cable operator/loop-holder provides more than 100 channels to the connection
holder. Most of these channels are western and Indian, transmitting programmes in
English and Hindi languages.
The study was conducted during December 2003-07 and the data for this study
was collected through a survey. Interviews’ schedule (verbal interview based on
questionnaire) was selected as a tool for data collection because some of the respondents
were illiterate and would not be able to read and answer the questionnaire. To test the
reliability of the instrument, inter-item correlation reliability test ‘Cronbach’s Alpha’ was
applied. The value of the Cronbach’s Alpha was computed using the SPSS-13 package
and the value of reliability came out to be 88 percent.
The total sample size was 432. Government administrative division, which
divided Lahore into six towns, was used and an equal number of respondents (72) was
interviewed from each town of Lahore. The findings of the study have been presented in
two categories.
· General findings: Discussion on general findings pertaining to the duration of
having cable television connection, what channels and kinds of programme are
preferred, reasons for watching, favourite time of watching, control over remote,
women’s right to watch cable television and restriction on viewing cable
television. It also analyses the relationship between above factors and level of
viewing besides demographic information of respondents i.e. age, education,
resident area, profession, income, marital status, etc.
· Findings on hypothesis testing: The major hypothesis was that a greater
exposure to cable television leaves a greater impact on the lives of women.
The sub-hypothesis included heavy viewers of cable television have experienced a
greater degree of effect on their domestic and other activities, on their family and social
interaction patterns, cultural practices and on their domestic and personal expenditure
than the moderate and light viewers.
It was also hypothesized that heavy women viewers of cable television tend to
show a greater degree of acceptance of television character’s appearance and style and of
role of western and urban Indian women than moderate and light viewers.
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5.27 General Findings of the Study
When demographic characteristics of the respondents were analyzed the researcher found
that a majority of the respondents are aged 31 to 40 years (60 percent). In Pakistan,
women of this age group generally are the ones who have started their marital life and are
raising their families. Motherhood defines women’s identity in Pakistan. Marital life for a
Pakistani woman is the time when she starts discovering her identity and a self-conscious
image of a figure which is very closely attached to her domestic and family life. This
group is of fundamental importance for studying the impact of cable television on their
lives due to the fact that they play an active role in shaping lives of their children in
particular and those of their families in general. More often than not, they are the nucleus
of the family and responsible for household activities, nurturing of children, taking care
of husband and in some cases elderly relations as well. Therefore, if this group gets
affected by cable television viewing, consequences are bound to impinge upon other
family members too. Although the sample of the study consisted of all income groups but
the majority belonged to middle and upper middle class and had a monthly income of
above Rs. 20,000. Findings revealed that a greater portion of them were married and
unemployed. Nearly three-fourth (73.1 percent) of them were house-managers that
indicates that they were able to afford more time watching cable television, therefore
majority of these women were found in heavy viewers category. Referring to education,
minimum qualification of more then three-fifth of the respondents (63.2 percent) was
graduation (Table A).
The results of demographic characteristics justified the suitability of respondents
with this research as majority of them were educated and had the capacity to understand a
variety of messages even in foreign languages like English and Hindi. Again, most of
them were married. Therefore, by virtue of social settings they enjoyed a key role in the
lives of their families and had purchasing power of varying extent and could directly or
indirectly influence media-motivated change in their lifestyle or that of their families.
Generally, it is believed that increase in duration of viewing cable television may
increase the impact on the viewers. Hence, the study also sought to find out respondents’
past involvement with cable television in general. Therefore, the researcher purposely
selected such respondents who were associated with cable television for a minimum
period of two years. They were further divided almost evenly into four brackets i.e.
respondents enjoying cable facility for the last two years (29.4 percent), three years (23
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percent), four years (23.6 percent) and more than four years (23.6 percent). People having
the cable facility for less than two years were deliberately avoided as shorter period of
exposure to cable television may not have had sufficient impact. The researcher found
more respondents in the category of people having cable connection for the last two years
(Table 5.1). This concludes that the level of acceptance and popularity of cable television
amongst the people of Lahore has readily increased in the recent times.
The findings revealed that the sample was fairly uniform in terms of percentage of
heavy (viewing cable television for 4 and more than 4 hours daily), moderate (viewing
more than 2 hours but less then 4 hours daily) and light viewers (1 to 2 hours daily) i.e.
almost 33 percent (Table 5.2). The comparison of duration of cable connection and the
levels of viewing carried out indicated that there was no significant association between
the two. However, the findings exposed that highest percentage of heavy viewers and
light viewers belonged to the category of respondents who had cable connections for the
last two years (Table 5.3). It may be concluded that the level of viewing cannot be
determined by the duration of cable facility.
The analysis of the association between respondents by their age and level of
viewing exposed that no considerable pattern was established amongst the two. However,
two-fifth of the heavy viewers belonged to the age group of 26 to 30 years followed by 31
to 35 years whereas other age groups have the same percentage which is 30 percent. This
sums up that respondents of different age groups have almost the same viewing patterns
and have spent almost equal time on cable television. However, an interesting finding was
portrayed in light viewer’s category, the highest percentage i.e. two-fifth of the
respondents aged 18 to 25 come under light viewers (Table 5.4). Though, conversely, one
would have expected this age group to fall in the category of heavy viewers. The analysis
of the association between the respondent’s education and level of viewing revealed that
the percentage of heavy viewers was less among the graduates as compared to the
respondents with the secondary level of education.
The analysis of the association between the respondent’s education and level of
viewing revealed that the percentage of heavy viewers was less among the graduates as
compared to respondents with secondary level of education. Women having masters or a
higher degree of learning were the light viewers (Table 5.5). This result establishes an
association between the level of viewing and respondent’s education. Similarly,
respondents’ professions also played a major role in determining the level of viewing. As
80 percent of the house managers were fall in the category of heavy and moderate
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viewers whereas almost 70 percent working women were light viewers (Table 5.6). This
confirms that house managers can spend a lot more time in front of cable television than
working women. Consequently, house managers are most likely to be affected by cable
television.
Findings did not establish any relationship between the level of viewing and towns
where the respondents live (Table 5.7) as the results of cable viewing in different towns
were almost identical. Likewise, there was also no relationship to be seen when
comparing the levels of income with cable television viewing levels. Respondents
belonging to different economic and social groups and salary ranging from Rs 1,000 to
more than Rs. 25,000 have had similar viewing patterns (Table 5. 8). This concludes that
income is not a major factor when it comes to cable television exposure.
Marital status does not matter when the level of cable television viewing is studied
as married and unmarried women have almost the same model (Table 5.9). This
conclusion is drawn from the fact that the respondents, whether married or not, were
mostly home managers or staying at home. This may give them extra time to sit in front
of cable television. Secondly, they might have cable television as the only source of
entertainment. In turn, their exposure to a variety of programmes and subsequently to the
values through cable television channels may influence their behaviour and lifestyle.
As far as respondents’ intentions of watching cable television channels are
concerned they were asked to give multiple answers. However, a considerable number of
the respondents mentioned that entertainment is their major reason for viewing the cable
television. Their responses indicate that the highest number of respondents watch cable
television for entertainment and relaxation (37.5 percent) and 7.9 percent respondents
watch cable television to kill their time which is basically another way of watching cable
television for entertainment and relaxation. On the other hand, only one-fourth of the
respondents watch cable television for information and awareness (Table 5.10). This
shows that greater part of respondents unwind in the evening while watching cable
television entertainment programmes. Also, these respondents watch cable television
programmes to learn about other countries, foreign values and cultures which
consequently open avenues for their adoption of foreign values consciously or
unconsciously. Therefore, it can be concluded that in the form of entertainment, women
in Lahore, Pakistan, are receiving a wide variety of influencing messages about foreign
culture and values.
131
When respondents were categorized according to the level of viewing and the
purpose of watching, it was found out that a majority of the heavy viewers watched
entertainment-oriented programmes (50 percent) as compared to information and news
(2.3 percent) and their main aim of watching cable television is to relax. One-fourth of the
light viewers cited educational programmes as their main reason for watching cable
television followed by sitting and watching with their families. The data reveals that 70
percent of moderate and heavy viewers’ first priority of watching cable television is
entertainment and relaxation. Also, two-fifth of them were interested in knowing about
other countries through cable television programmes (Table 5.11). To wrap it up, heavy
viewers were not information seekers but solely entertainment addicts. On the contrary,
light viewers were more interested in seeking information and education and showed
greater family values while watching cable television rather than entertainment and
relaxation. This can be concluded that there is a strong association between heavy
viewing and entertainment-oriented programmes. The data clearly confirms that heavy
and moderate viewers are watching entertainment based programmes from 2 hours to
more than 4 hours that might have a much greater effect on their lifestyle than the light
viewers.
Respondents were also asked to prioritize their preferred channels of cable
television (foreign or local). Their responses were accumulated. Ten channels (six foreign
and four Pakistani) emerged as popular ones among respondents.
Foreign channels preferred by respondents included Star Plus, Zee TV, Sony
Entertainment TV, Star Movies, HBO and BBC whereas Pakistani channels included Geo
TV, ARY, Indus Vision and Ptv World. It has been noted that among the favourite
channels, foreign channels were greater in number (Table 5.12). This shows greater
interest of Pakistani women in foreign channels and they were devoting most of their
viewing time to foreign channels. Thus the impact of these cable television channels
would be evident.
Findings also revealed an interesting result that the Indian channel ‘Star Plus’ had
the highest following among foreign and local channels. Star Plus is India’s most watched
Hindi language general entertainment television channel. This channel is the part of the
Star TV network’s family of channels. It is also known for bringing in a revolution in the
Indian television world with new shows in 2000. It has been India's No. 1 cable television
channel for the last seven years, reaching more than 50 million viewers every week with
45 out of top 50 shows on Indian cable and satellite television (Wikipedia, Web, 2007).
132
The point to be noted regarding Star Plus is that its programming primarily consists of
family soap operas which mainly portray female protagonists and mother-in-law and
daughter-in-law relationships in joint families system. In South Asian family traditions,
tension between these relationships is a common topic and hence the theme is very close
to the heart of every married woman. Other two Indian channels with a reasonable
following were Sony and Zee TV although with low percentage i.e. 7.2 percent and 12.5
percent respectively. Sony Entertainment Television is a general entertainment channel,
owned or co-owned by Sony Pictures Entertainment whereas Zee TV is the first Indiabased
satellite television channel in the Zee Network umbrella, which broadcasts in Hindi
and Urdu. They are also famous for long serials on themes similar to Star TV soap operas.
Star Plus is the most popular channel among all the cable television channels.
According to the study findings, Star TV’s soap operas directly target emotions of women
and thus leave greater effect on them. All these Indian channels are popular for long
drawn out sensational soap operas with gaudy expensive dresses; heavy make-up and
upper-middle class women living in big houses, etc. A culture of parties, mix gatherings,
love affairs both extra-marital and otherwise, extravagant wedding and other Hindu
ceremonies, stark portrayal of Hindu religion, women locked in vile household
conspiracies and melodramatic situations are all the salient features of these soap operas.
Hindu festivals like Holi, Deewali, Ganpati Baba’s festival, Karwa Choath and
other such purely Hindu religious festivals are very prominently portrayed in these plays.
But these plays essentially lack any coherent plot or storyline and are based mainly on
sensational and theatrical situations. As such they are deliberately constructed to appeal to
the emotions of women living in joint families. Women with desires to lead a glittering
social life and with crushing desire to take it all out on their husbands and other in-laws
find it all too easy to gratify their suppressed desires through these plays.
Shahbaz (2002) also confirmed that these dramas are very popular among an
overwhelming majority of cable television viewers. Projection of blown up version of
upper middle class Indian culture through Star Plus is not only considered a disturbing
sign in Pakistan but it is criticized in India also. Anjlee, Loona, and Towhid, (2006) stated
that the culture portrayed in Star Plus soap operas, which is not Indian, and is creating
frustration among Indians also. Similarly, another study conducted by Butt in 2005
analyzed the projection of Hindu religion in Star Plus soap operas. She employed content
analysis and the final results found “soap operas on star Plus directly and indirectly are
giving maximum coverage to Hindu religion through the projection of names of gods and
133
goddesses, religious verses, religious words and history, different scenes in religious
background, sounds and prayers. Some of the religious scenes were the requirement of
the story but most of the time their projection is unnecessary. This may affect viewers at a
large scale because the viewing of these soap operas is not countrywide but worldwide.”
Another survey research was carried out on the ‘impact of cable television transmission
on the residents of Multan. The results of the survey indicated “powerful cultural
traditions particularly of Indian culture are getting popular in the country due to cable
television transmission (Malik, 2003). Although a majority of respondents mentioned that
entertainment is the sole purpose of watching such channels but imperceptibly they get
influenced by these programmes and adopt similar values and norms. As such it can be
concluded that Star Plus dramas under the cover of entertainment were resulting in
deculturisation and aculturisation of audience.
HBO and Star Movies (purely entertainment and movie channels) were preferred
by 18.5 percent and 19.2 percent of the respondents respectively. HBO is operated by
Home Box Office Group, part of Time Warner. It is an American premium cable
television network. HBO telecast feature films, its own original television movies and
various original series including flagship programmes The Sopranos, Six Feet Under and
Sex and the City. Star Movies is the No.1 English movie channel based in India. It brings
audiences the biggest blockbusters from the Hollywood. Star Movies also features the
Emmy award-winning and critically acclaimed series Lost and the science-fiction smash
hit trilogy, The Triangle. Regular viewers of these channels are exposed to various kinds
of effects.
Apart from these channels, British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) usually
known as the BBC, was being watched by 17.1 percent respondents. It is the largest
broadcasting corporation in the world in terms of the number of audience. It produces
programmes and information services on television, radio and internet. The stated mission
of the BBC is "to inform, educate and entertain”. All of these channels project western
view, values and culture which may influence viewers directly or indirectly because
regular exposure to a specific action serves as a model for others to imitate.
Geo TV (a Pakistani private channel) was the second most popular channel among
respondents. It was preferred by almost 70 percent of the respondents followed by ARY
(33.6 percent) and Indus Vision (22 percent) respectively. Geo TV is an Urdu Pakistani
television network that officially began transmission in October 2002. This channel is
owned by Jang Group of Publications. Geo TV is a mix of news and entertainment. Its
134
programming includes interactive infotainment programmes, children's programmes, topof-
the-hour news broadcasts and current affairs/events programmes. It has been rated by
the Gallup, Pakistan and quoted by Business Week as the most watched television
channel in Pakistan
Indus Vision was another satellite channel operating in Pakistan. It operates as a
24-hour entertainment channel and comprises a strong line-up of Urdu programming that
includes dramas, sitcoms, entertainment and magazine shows, cooking shows, fashion
shows, talk shows, television films, cartoons, etc. Similarly, ARY is another popular
Pakistani television network in Pakistan, Middle East and Europe. Most programmes
cater to the needs of South Asians, especially Pakistani community. It also telecasts Urdu
programmes and songs. It is considered as one of the pioneer in Pakistani media and
broadcasting industry. It has a network of channels with each having an independent
focus such as ARY One World, ARY Digital, The Musik, QTV and The City Channel.
All of these Pakistani channels are private and telecast programmes for
international audience. For foreign approval, they show programmes with an international
approach. Therefore, these channels, particularly Geo TV, reflect a potpourri of Pakistani,
Indian and western cultures. This is a strong reason for the popularity of Geo TV. It
dominates Pakistani electronic media scene because it is bolder than the official Ptv and
broader than other contesting networks in the private sector. It would be worthwhile to
express that the impact of western and Indian societies is obvious on respondents as not
only western and Indian channels but Pakistani channels are also portraying same values
to some extent. Therefore, respondents are getting significant amount of exposure of
foreign values, lifestyles and cultures through a mix of Indian and Pakistani channels.
Ptv World was ranked the lowest among major Pakistani channels as far as the
findings of the study are concerned. Only 17.8 percent respondents preferred to watch Ptv
World, although it is considered as Pakistan's first family entertainment satellite channel.
Ptv World is aimed at attracting domestic and international audience and competing with
other television channels targeting viewers in the region and the Subcontinent. Though
Ptv World has improved and brought drastic changes in its programming, but it has not
been able to compete the foreign and Pakistan’s private television channels. Main cause
of its low preference is its tag of the state-owned television.
Apart from the above-mentioned channels, there were some other channels which
were watched by some of the respondents which included QTV, B4U, Hum TV, Zoom
and Style Dunya as well as local channels which play English and Indian movies and
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Pakistani stage plays round the clock. Respondents’ preference in watching QTV clearly
gives the impression of two extremes; either they have tendency towards religious
channels or they watch the offensive channels which shows the contrast of choices at the
same level. The reason for preferring QTV is simply that women of our society are under
the influence of male family members and they follow the pattern shown to them whether
its verbally or simply conveyed through gestures. As such the reason for watching QTV is
mainly the obedience factor.
B4U is yet another Indian movie channel which was making inroads into our
society with a similar impact on viewers, their social lives thus leading to a kind of race
among women to get latest information about Indian fashions, film industry and so on.
Newly-wed women along with those living in joint families were more prone to watching
these channels. HUM TV is an entertainment and fashion-oriented channel and it was
mostly watched by women of well-to-do families and those who want to have a style.
Least watched channels were Ten Sports, Music Max, Star Sports, The Music and
Hallmark MGM.
It was confirmed that Star Plus is the first priority of the respondents (Table,
5:12). When preferred channels of the respondents were compared with the level of
viewing, the result was again the same i.e. respondents of all categories (heavy, moderate
and light viewers), were equally interested in ‘Star Plus’ with percentage of 82.6, 80.7
and 73.4 respectively. However, Pakistani channels Geo and ARY, which come second
and third in the category of most popular channels in comparison with viewing hours,
Geo TV got the highest percentage of light viewers whereas ARY had the highest
percentage of moderate viewers. Geo has two sections - news and infotainment. News
section works for news and current affairs programmes whereas the infotainment section
is responsible for entertainment programmes based on information. Therefore, viewers of
Geo TV were not only watching informative programmes but getting entertainment as
well. Significantly, these channels present dramas and other entertainment programmes
which reinforce findings regarding the purpose of viewing. Findings also show that
moderate and light viewers go for western channels more than heavy viewers (Table
5.13). Therefore, it may be concluded that entertainment channels are preferred by heavy
and moderate viewers than light viewers. Lundberg (1958) in his study on the “Impact of
Television on Family Life” also confirms that viewers prefer television for entertainment.
The findings of a survey by Rahim (1994) on “Impact of Cable on Television and Video
Viewing in Hyderabad” also support the results of this study. He concludes; “Average
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time spent on watching television is 5.36 hours per day in each household. More females
watch entertainment programmes on television. Although there is no significant variation
of choice regarding news between Door Darshan and cable television but cable television
is preferred for entertainment programmes and movies.”
As far as respondents preferred programmes are concerned, they were asked to
enlist all of their favourite programmes on cable television channels and their responses
were accumulated and found that majority of the respondents preferred to watch purely
entertainment-oriented programmes. Findings again correspond to the result of preferred
channels and purpose of their viewing. The data indicated that the most favourite
programme of the three-forth respondents was drama followed by movies (34.3 percent)
whereas music was preferred by one-forth of the total respondents. On the contrary,
information programmes were preferred by one-forth of the respondents and the least
interesting, as indicated in the Table 5.14, were cooking programmes with the percentage
of 9.5. Main reason of respondents’ less interest in news and current affairs is that
women, particularly the house managers in Pakistani society are not much interested in
national and international politics. Thus they do not like watching news and current
affairs programmes. Their interest in cooking programmes is due to the reason that they
have to work in the kitchen so they develop a liking towards cooking shows. Other
programmes being watched by some of the respondents were fashion shows, Pakistani
stage dramas, kids and comedy, health care and western music programmes.
The above mentioned findings are hardly surprising. It has already been verified
that the most favourite channel of the respondents is Star Plus which primarily broadcasts
soap operas based mainly on never ending family and business politics. Some of these
dramas boast female protagonists and mother-in-law and daughter-in-law relationships in
joint families. Although most of the happenings are highly exaggerated versions of real
life situation presented in an attractive and interesting way thus grabbing the attention of
viewers. Middle-aged women are portrayed in heavy make-up and jewelry and young
girls as fashion models. Women are shown cunning and manipulator (Shahbaz, 2004:
258). Their power of decision making and their central role in the family again could be a
source of disturbance among women in Pakistan. Viewers develop para-social
relationships with these characters and take them as role model. In such a situation, there
is an ample chance for viewers to get influenced by their roles, appearance and style. As a
result, their attitude and behavior experience a change. These dramas project extraordinarily
rich high and posh class of the society. Their lavish lifestyle and luxuriously
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decorated huge home with expensive furniture could be a source of frustration among
viewers
Results of Table 5.15 reinforce the above mentioned concern and confirm a
significant association between the level of viewing and preference for specific
programmes. It was noticeable that drama is the first preference of all types of viewers i.e.
heavy, moderate and light. Reason may be that dramas are of short duration and
affordable by light viewers. Movies were the second choice of heavy and moderate
viewers as they were glued to the television for a much longer period of time. Again,
heavy viewers’ third choice was music whereas information programmes were their forth
option. On the contrary, information programmes were the second priority of light
viewers and third choice of moderate viewers. This confirmed that respondents are
influenced by the foreign culture and lifestyle, particularly the Indian, through
entertainment programmes presented by the popular television channels. This is also an
indication of possibilities of acceptance of Indian and western culture at the cost of
Pakistani values and culture.
A few years back when Ptv was the only choice available to the people in
Pakistan. It was a tradition that the whole family would sit together and watch prime time
programmes and would have greater degree of interaction. But with the introduction and
acceptance of cable television in our society, it has been observed that people are
developing a habit of watching cable television alone instead of watching it along with
their families. Main reason is the choice and variety of channels but the researcher’s
concern was that watching cable television alone would reduce interaction among family
members, therefore, allowing them to concentrate on programmes.
Respondents were also asked to mention how they prefer to watch cable
television, alone or with their families. Table 5.16 revealed that majority of the
respondents (51.4 percent) were interested in watching cable television with someone or
with their families. However, 48.6 percent of the respondents preferred to watch cable
television alone, resulting in lesser interaction with family members. The difference
between the two categories is not significant. It is expected that people who prefer to
watch cable television alone would gradually increase and in turn their interaction
amongst their families would further decline, which has already had a downfall since the
spread of cable television in the country.
This assumption could be confirmed through a longitudinal study. Table 5.17
states that association exists between the preference of watching cable television
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alone/with family and level of viewing. Majority of the heavy viewers (34.4 percent)
preferred to watch cable television alone whereas the highest number of light viewers
(36.0 percent) was interested in watching cable television while sitting with their families.
It indicates that heavy viewers prefer to be isolated or watch such programmes which they
cannot watch with their families.
Pakistani society is a male dominated one where man is the bread winner and
majority of women are domestic creatures. Therefore, decisions are mostly taken by the
men. As far as the television’s remote control device is concerned, almost half of the
respondents told that male members of the family controlled the remote of television. In
all the cases i.e. heavy, moderate and light viewers, similar situation prevailed. This is
because the respondents were able to control the remote all day and were more concerned
about managing their families when they were watching cable television together rather
than having control over the remote. In some families (19.7 percent), the remote was
controlled by the younger viewers shows their freedom and strength. (Table 5.18).
In response to the favourite watching time, more than three-fourth of the
respondents preferred to watch cable television after 7:00 pm (prime time). It has already
been verified that the respondents’ first priority in programmes was dramas, preferably
watched on Star Plus. This confirmed the above-mentioned point as the starting time of
dramas on Star Plus is 7:00 pm to 11:00 pm. Another interesting finding was derived by
comparing the Table 5.19 which indicated men’s control over the remote and Table 5.20
which reveals that the favourite watching time for women was 7:00 pm onwards. It is a
fact that men are equally interested in watching Star Plus dramas during prime time of
cable television. It is again confirmed that all types of respondents (heavy, moderate and
light viewers) preferably watch cable television after 7:00 pm. These viewing patterns of
respondents indicated that their free evening time, which was previously used for social
and family bonding, is now spent in front of the television.
Although cable television is widely accepted in Pakistani society, still certain
restrictions were observed on women watching these programmes. Hence, respondents
were asked to reveal whether such restrictions were imposed on them or not. Only a small
number (17.8 percent) of them responded that some restrictions are enforced i.e. time and
programming by their families, whereas majority of the respondents (68.5 percent) denied
any such restrictions. This proves the fact that cable television is warmly accepted and
used without any hesitation. Whereas, a few years back people were of the view that
cable television promoted vulgarity, threatened our traditions and values, drove us away
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from our religion and was sheer wastage of time and money. Respondents who were
restricted claimed that they were told not to watch stage dramas, music programmes and
movies. Restrictions were imposed because of vulgarity in programmes as this is against
the religion, against their values and culture and viewing cable television can affect their
working. Night time is the restricted one as they would be unable to give time to their
families and secondly it would disturb their reading habits.
When respondents were asked to point out whether men also face restriction on
watching cable television, the result was obvious that men do not have any restriction of
watching cable television as they are considered mature, independent and masters of their
will (Table 5.23).
Although the findings above made it clear that a few respondents (women) were
restricted to watch cable television’s certain programmes at times. However, they were
also asked whether the women at their homes have equal rights as men to watch cable
television. Two-fifth of respondents claimed that they are treated equally as men in
reference to watching cable television. Whereas almost three-fifth of them complained
that men had more rights to watch cable television. Only 0.2 percent of the total
responded that they had more rights than men (Table 5.24). This concludes that
discrimination in watching cable television also exists in the use of communication
technology, which further supports the fact that our society is male dominated.
Respondents were also asked what they prefer to do in their free time and majority
of them claimed that they enjoy watching cable television instead of reading books,
playing games and going out for leisure. Although reading books and outing are
considered healthy activities as compared to cable television watching, still cable
television was the first priority during the free hours of most of the respondents’ (Table
5.25). Judging by the data it can be said that cable television has become an important
household commodity and an important part of women’s daily life in Lahore. In turn, if
women keep on pursuing this unhealthy activity (excessively watching cable television),
we can say that young generation would certainly follow in their foot steps.
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5.28 Major Findings of Hypothesis Testing related to Dependent
Variables
The major findings of hypothesis testing related to the dependent variables used are
presented below.
5.28.1 Variables
i. Domestic and Other Activities
This factor of the research was operationalized in one dependent variable which deals
with changes in women’s daily life routines. Thus, it analyses the cable television’s effect
on their domestic and other activities i.e. household chores, newspaper, magazine and
book reading, going out for shopping, outing and cinema, listening to music, prayer and
religious book reading, etc.
The hypothesis for the dependent variable ‘domestic and other activities’ was:
Heavy viewers of cable television experience greater degree of effect on their
domestic and other activities than the moderate and light viewers. The data analyzed
by Chi-square produced statistically significant association between levels of cable
television viewing and level of the effect on domestic and other activities. As such it is
concluded that heavy television viewing has more impact on domestic and other activities
of women than light viewing.
Findings revealed that majority of the women (57 percent) claimed that cable
television is affecting their domestic and other activities whereas only 33 percent of the
respondents disagreed with the statement. Four-fifth of the heavy viewers mentioned that
their activities are adversely affected by watching cable television and more than threefifth
of the moderate viewers agreed with heavy viewers. However, less than one-fifth of
light viewers agreed to this statement. When types of activities affected were asked, fourfifth
of the respondents replied that their habit of reading newspapers and magazines and
going out for movies is badly affected (Table 5.26). Similar results were also presented by
William Belson (1961) when he stated that television has affected reading habits and
changed routine of viewers. His survey concluded:
1. There is, however, a pattern of changes where these are increased they tend to be
among the paper of popular press-where decreases among the more serious
papers.
2. Television appears to stimulate reading items dealing with television programmes.
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The present study also found that 70 percent of the respondents listening to audio
music were affected. Majority of them also complained that their cooking and serving
time was affected and also more than two-fifth insisted that watching cable television
affected their prayers and reading religious books. Whereas light viewers claimed that
their activities had a negligible effect when compared to heavy viewers. Light viewers
were mostly affected in reading books i.e. less than one-fifth of the total respondents. The
least affected category of heavy viewers (45.13 percent) was reading books whereas of
light viewers (10.0 percent) was going out for movies (Table 5.29). It can be concluded
that as the time spent in front of cable television increases so does the effect on
respondent’s daily activities is increased. This supports the idea that lives of women in
Lahore are changing due to the cable television watching. Lundberg (1958) conducted the
same kind of research study on behavioural changes entitled “The Impact of Television
on Family Life in the Boston Area”. The researcher declared “Nearly all owners have
their television sets on at some time during the after-supper hours each day. This means
that reading, playing and conversation are at a minimum in the living room of televisionhomes
during evening.” Similarly, Eashwer (1994) conducted a research on the impact of
cable television on women at a very basic level in terms of activities, time management
and interaction with family members and outside world which presented almost the same
results. It revealed that 16 out of 30 women spent over 4 hours a day watching cable
television and 10 of them spent 2 to 3 hours a day. Major activities affected are:
· Exposure to other media and reading habits
· Interaction with children, husband, other family members, friends and neighbours
· Cooking and other household work.
Also through cable television women see two Indian feature films a day, which
pushes them in the world of fantasy and promotes violence.
Bryan (1970) had the similar opinion when he wrote “average individual in
Britain today gives more time to mass communication in particular to television than he
gives to general reading, part time education and personal interests. Relationships are thus
fed up with what media provides and it is altogether acceptable that attitude of mass
media should be taken in with materials”. A local study by Malik (2003) carried on the
“Impact of Cable Television Transmission on the Residents of Multan” also found the
same results and it concluded that viewers who spent time watching cable television
transmission their routine and activities are affected.
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ii. Interaction Patterns
Pakistani tradition proclaims that family and social interaction should be given proper
importance. Guests are warmly welcome by people, family comes first but with the
introduction of cable television the time spent in front of television readily increased
which raised certain concerns. One of these concerns was erosion of family ties as well as
changed social interaction patterns. This study also targeted to find out how our
socialization patterns are changing.
The study operational zed this factor into ten items dealing broadly with:
· Social Interaction: Change in interaction patterns with relatives, neighbours and
friends in terms of time and visit
· Family Interaction: Change in family interaction patterns i.e. with husband and
children in terms of time at home, outing and interruption during watching cable
television.
The hypothesis assumed that Heavy viewers of cable television experience a
greater degree of change on their family and social interaction patterns than the moderate
and light viewers. The statistical analysis Chi-square was applied which shows that a
significant association exists between levels of cable television viewing and levels of
social interaction. However, no association exists between levels of cable television
viewing and level of family interaction particularly interaction between mother and child.
The data analysis clearly stated that interaction patterns were under the influence
of cable television and changing rapidly. There were eight indicators chosen for the
confirmation of this theory which included interaction with children, husband, relatives,
neighbours, friends, visits to others, guests arrival, family interference and outing. When
this data was analyzed the most affected were friends (mean value 2.28) interactions with
friends readily declining. Whereas the second most affected group was of relatives (mean
value 2.23). It was found out that respondents disliked visiting others’ houses (mean
value 2.21) during primetime hours. Similarly, they were not ready to welcome or
entertain their guests during these hours. It may be concluded that cable television was
seriously affecting social interaction patterns as respondents would rather enjoy their
cable television programmes than socialization which was a major part of Pakistani
culture.
As far as the respondents’ family interaction is concerned, the null hypothesis for
mother-children interaction was accepted indicating that the interaction with children was
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not affected. The mother-children interaction mean value of 1.3 also confirms this fact. In
the case of husband-wife interaction (mean value 1.5) was being affected a little. It is
clear that the husband-wife interaction maybe affected as the time for bonding was
decreasing when the wives as well as husbands concentrate on cable television. Lundberg
(1958) expressed in her research study titled “The Impact of Television on Family Life in
Boston Area” that television brings families together in the sense that they spend more
time in each other’s presence after they acquire a television set. However, there is very
little interaction among family members when they watch television together and the
amount of time family members spend together without watching television is reduced. It
is therefore doubtful whether television brings the family together in any psychological
sense.”
This study tried to get the answer of this query and findings revealed that majority
of the respondents does not like any type of family interference while watching cable
television especially during primetime. Sometimes they would also avoid going out with
their families in turn declining even more family interaction (Table 5.30). When level of
viewing was compared with the effect on interaction a significant association can be seen
(Table 5.47).
All three categories i.e. heavy, moderate and light viewers have effects on social
interaction levels due to cable television. Two-third of the heavy viewers was the most
affected whereas the least affected are the light viewers (8.4 percent). It was found that
the heavy viewers’ viewing has inversely proportionate relationship between the level of
the heavy viewers’ viewing and level of social interaction (Table 5.47). It may be
concluded that viewing has had an impact when it comes to social interaction. Since the
most interactively-productive time of the day is consumed in watching cable television by
heavy viewers, it affects their interaction patterns enormously. Similar conclusion was
also made by Malik (2003) through her study on the ‘The Impact of Cable Television
Transmission on the Residents of Multan’. She stated that inter-individual communication
has decreased due to cable television watching.
iii. Appearance and Style
This research tried to discover: ‘Was the target audience associating their personal
appearance and style with television characters?’. The study described appearance and
lifestyle as dress style, hairstyle, make-up, jewellery and accent adopted by women. Thus
this dimension was operationalzed into six dependant variables i.e. acceptance of
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resemblance with television characters, imitating television characters’ hairstyles, accent,
make-up, jewellery, etc.
The hypothesis developed was ‘heavy viewers of cable television tend to show a
greater degree of acceptance of television characters’ appearance and style than the
moderate and light viewers.’ Chi-square value indicated a significant association
between level of cable television viewing and levels of acceptance of television
characters’ appearance and style. Hence, the hypothesis was statistically supported. It
confirms that heavy television viewing has significant impact on appearance and style of
women residing in Lahore, Pakistan, as compared to light viewers.
It was established from the research that favourite programme of respondents is
drama and their favourite channel are Star Plus and Geo TV. Although our society norms
and cultural background suggest that the appearance of women has to be stylish yet
modest and use of jewellery and ornaments should conform to local culture but the
characters’ glamorous lifestyles especially in drama are far from reality.
The effects of cable television programmes were measured upon respondents and
it indicated that the greatest impact of watching cable television is on jewellery and
ornamental style (mean value 2.6) Jewellery worn by drama characters have a greater
market acceptance and is immediately copied by manufacturers. Jewellery designs and
styles were associated with particular characters and it has greater satisfaction value
amongst heavy viewers. The data analysis suggests that almost half of the respondents
considered television characters as their role model for appearance and style and they
wanted to look like those characters (mean value 2.15). Respondents copy these
characters for decorative jewellery and try to emulate their accent (mean value 2.39).
They follow the television characters compellingly for formal dressing and make-up
(mean value 2.30). But only 34 percent of the respondents agreed that they relate
themselves to television characters. A majority of heavy viewers was being highly
affected (Table 5.49) and light viewers were showing minimal effects in terms of
appearance and style. It approves the hypothesis of the study.
Programmes on cable television are conceived and produced with overwhelming
approach of profit maximization for the television channels. In order to attract greater
commercial value they have to generate larger viewership and that in turn provides in
roads for larger than life glamorous characters and startling lifestyles. The style and
glamour projected through drama is although out of line from our original style but was
making an impact on viewers according to their level of viewing. Pakistani women were
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showing inclination towards change, for better or worse, by emulating television
characters. This study also confirms and approves the Social Learning and Modelling
theories.
Latifa and Arif (1999) have also presented similar results in their study on ‘The
Impact of Satellite Channels.’ They state: ‘If we look around, we will see more faces
wearing make-up, more girls wearing fashionable clothes, more stylish hair-cuts and
more boys with long hair fond of motorcycling, more teenagers fond of burgers, Coke and
hostelling’. Thus, we can say that the effect of satellite television channels on its audience
is not simply to the extent that it has left very little time for family get together but is
introducing new trends, behaviours, attitudes and standards for a modern life. So we can
conclude that because of its interest-oriented programmes, satellite television channels
have greatly affected the society.
iv. Cultural Practices
Dependent variable cultural practices were operationalized into 25 items which deal with
five parameters including language, food, dressing, religion and some of the traditions as
indicators of culture practices.
· Food: Acceptance of television as the best source of learning new dishes. Usage
of western and Indian dishes and changed pattern of dining
· Dressing: Acceptance of television as the best source of fashion and dress
designs. Usage of western and Indian dresses as casual and party wear
· Language: Acceptance of television as the best source of learning languages.
Usage of Indian and English language
· Traditions: Acceptance and practice of Indian and western traditions
· Religion: Acceptance of television as the best source of religious information and
changing trends.
The hypothesis stated that heavy viewers of cable television experience greater
degree of effect on their cultural practices than the moderate and light viewers. The
statistical analysis of the data has been done by chi-square which significantly proves
association between the level of cable television viewing and the level of the effect on
cultural practices. It implies that high television viewing is influencing cultural practices
in Lahore, Pakistan, and women are accepting western and Indian culture.
Pakistani traditional culture advocates that all the family members should have
one main meal a day together at home. This practice ensures family interaction and
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discussion on family and general matters of interest. The traditional Pakistani cuisine has
a great value and taste in our culture. Meat is the main ingredient of most of the dishes.
Therefore, food and dining habits were selected as a part of the study to judge the impact
of cable television on the cultural practices
There has been an evident pattern and impact of cable television according to the
study as two-third of the respondents suggested that they have introduced western food
dishes in their homes (mean value 2.34). However, the addition of Indian dishes was
negligible according to the respondents because the number of food programmes is very
few and they are mostly focused on vegetables and not on meat. The focus of viewers of
Indian channels was on drama and they are not eager to watch food programmes on
television channels like Star Plus. The finding confirms that there is more acceptance of
BBC Food channel that introduces the western dishes in easy recipes and with complete
nutrition values. Also the most-viewed television channels of Pakistan like GEO, ARY
and Indus Vision run programmes on food every day with celebrities as hosts. Another
factor for this trend is that all the ingredients are now easily available in Pakistani
markets. Since women have the control over the kitchen, therefore, change in food
preparation and selection of food affects the whole family. Exposure to more western
food programmes was introducing new recipes and courage to try them at home. More
than two-third of the respondents consider television programmes to be an effective
source of learning cooking (mean value 2.43). Another change in traditions witnessed is
that majority of the respondents prefer to dine in front of the television (mean value 2.31).
Instead of personal family matters, discussion is on television programmes during meals.
Thus, family issues were going on the back-burner and television characters are becoming
family members. Data (Table 5.51) signifies that heavy viewers are highly affected by
such programmes and similarly light viewers are least affected by them.
Casual western dressing has inspired one-fourth of the respondents and they like
to wear western dresses. But a majority of the respondents does not feel inclination for
western party dresses. On the other hand, almost all the respondents replied in negative in
response to wearing Indian dresses (Saree) casually but one-third liked to wear it as a
party wear due to their colour and grace. Two-third of the respondents considered cable
television as an effective source of learning about fashion trends (mean value 2.44).
Therefore, it is convincing that cable television was affecting its viewers in the dress
trends and its effects are directly related to the viewership, with heavy viewers being
affected the most.
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Proud nations take pride in promoting their language and expanding its use. The
strength of culture and character of a nation can be judged by the vastness of its language.
Introduction of new words and different ways to use them provide continuity and
diversity in language. Urdu language has its roots embedded in a rich cultural heritage
and a history with superb literary work performed over the ages. Urdu has experienced
and survived hard and tough times while co-existing with Hindi language and facing the
wrath of the Britishers. But Urdu language was being influenced by Hindi language and
the impact is evident from the study. Three-fourth of the respondents agreed that
television is the best source of learning languages. Introduction of foreign languages’
words in Urdu is on the rise and three-fourth of the respondents have agreed to this (mean
value 2.57). Majority of the respondents (83 percent) liked to use colloquial English and
are learning new English words from cable television. Three-fourth of the respondents
submitted that they learnt new Hindi words from television and two-third of the
respondents admitted using Hindi words in their daily routine. Urdu language is getting
strong impact due to invasion of foreign words. The study revealed that high impact on
language of heavy viewers and light impact on language of light viewers supports the
hypothesis. Since women are centre to every household and early education, training and
learning of children is carried out by them. Any effect on women shows up in the
upbringing of the children and outlook of the family in general.
Traditions play an important part in every culture and they play a key role in the
formation of cultural identification. Impact of foreign traditions that are being introduced
through cable television has been studied in this study. Majority of the respondents (51
percent) admitted that they celebrate Hindu marriage traditions. Most startling revelation
has been that although a very small number (1.6 percent) of the respondents are
celebrating Holi. This is a start of accepting something totally against our traditions.
Valentine’s Day is warmly celebrated by majority of respondents (59.5 percent) and
Halloween and Bonfire are also celebrated by a minority of respondents. The impact
again shows high influence on heavy viewers and little on light viewers. These findings
strongly suggest that cable television was resulting in erosion of Pakistani culture and
introducing Indian and western culture in the country. Both Social Learning and
Cultivation theories can be aptly applied to the situation.
Religion has been the main driving force for the campaign for independence of
Pakistan. Religious sentiments are easily inflamed and all the channels are particularly
careful not to raise any religion conflict. Majority of the respondents (75 percent) agreed
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that television is the best source of religious information. Moreover, a minority of the
respondents (17 percent) think that their religious level is decreasing due to cable
television.
Cable television influenced our traditional and cultural values and its impact is
clearly visible on food, dining habits, dressing, traditional celebrations and religion. The
impact is a reality and it needs to be thoroughly researched to check the positive or
negative influence on our culture. The trend according to this research is showing patterns
that should be a cause of concern as women are accepting other cultural influences. But
Pakistani culture is failing to make an impact on other cultures.
Many international and national researches supported the results of this factor of
the study. A national study by Malik (2003) on “The impact of cable television
transmission on the residents of Multan” supports the results of this study by concluding
that powerful cultural traditions, particularly Indian culture, are getting popularity due to
cable television transmission. Another study by Saleem (1995) on “Cultural Imperialism:
A case study of the impact of dish antenna on Pakistani society” concluded that dish
antenna’s programmes are successfully influencing the socio-cultural and religious beliefs
and values of Pakistani viewers.
Another supporting statement comes from William Crawky and David Page
(Linter 2001: web) when they said that the satellite television channels are using
(projecting) local languages in showing local entertainment, news and sports and
introducing even a new kind of lingua franca which has become to be known as Hinglish,
a mixture of English and Hindi that reflects in everyday speech of many educated people
in the Sub-continent (cited in Shahbaz 2004 85). So is the case with Urdu language in
Pakistan. Ali (2001) and Shahbaz, Z. (2004) conducted studies on the “Impact of satellite
television channels on the people living in Lahore” and the “Impact of Star Plus dramas
on youth in Pakistan” respectively also emphasizes on the influence of Star Plus family
dramas on social and cultural values and norms of Pakistani youth of middle class. The
survey research concludes that socio-cultural thinking of Pakistani youth is under the
influence of foreign cultural values. They are also affecting language, fashion, food and
architecture, social behaviour and daily lifestyle of Pakistani society. The eastern and
western cultures are intermingled in these dramas, resulting in an ‘international culture’
and promoting liberalism and modernism in Pakistani society.
According to the thesis report of Khalid 84 percent people began to eat foreign
dishes of food in daily life, 46 percent chose dresses of foreign style and 50 percent of the
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respondents felt change in their routine. The study also revealed that 64 percent of the
respondents were using Hindi words, whereas 34 percent were using phrases on different
occasions. In some way, 11 percent of the respondents were fascinated by foreign cultural
and social norms through foreign channels invasion. This study made clear that “cable
television channel Star Plus had influenced social and cultural norms and values of
Pakistani youth”. Fantasy, which was showed in these channels, was the main reason to
attract students and Pakistan’s new generation. Similarly, Tariq (2004) conducted a study
on “Invasion of Indian culture through movies”. This study evaluated the influence of
Indian movies on marriage traditions/celebrations in high class of Lahore, Pakistan.
Findings of the study revealed that majority of the respondents (87.9 percent) watched
Indian and English movies on cable television. 92.2 percent of the respondents were
agreed that Indian movies showed attractive marriage traditions, hairstyles, colours,
makeup, dresses, jewellery and lifestyles. Four–fifth of the respondents agreed that
marriage functions in high class were following the patterns shown in Indian movies.
Three-fourth of the respondents admitted that dress of bride and bridegroom and their
parents were influenced by Indian movies. Similarly, jewellery make-up and hairstyle of
bride and stage decoration also had been changed by Indian movies. Indian dances and
songs were played during the marriage ceremonies. Marriage expenditures and traditions
in Pakistan were influenced by Indian movies. Sen (1993) Shariffadeen (1995) has also
worked on impact of television on culture and concluded similar results.
Butt (2005) pointed out in his research the perspective of analyzing the projection
of Hindu religion in Star Plus soap operas. According to final results, the researcher found
that sample soap operas directly and indirectly are giving maximum coverage to Hindu
religion through the projection of names of gods ad goddesses, religious verses, religious
words and history, different scenes in religious background, sounds and prayers. Some of
the religious scenes are the requirement of the story but most of the time their projection
is unnecessary. The researcher expressed concern that if they are projecting Hindu
religion with such percentage then it will affect their viewers because viewership of these
soap operas is not only countrywide but it is worldwide.
v. Domestic and Personal Expenditures:
Social set-up in Pakistan is male-dominated and winning bread and butter is the
responsibility of males. Norms suggest that only family head works and takes care of his
entire family. The pattern of expenditure is considered as a very important factor in the
household and that is why it was selected for this study. This factor is operationalzed into
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three items which deal with the cable television affects on their domestic and personal
expenditures.
Hypothesis of the study was designed as ‘heavy viewers of cable television have
experience a greater degree of effect on their domestic and personal expenditures
than the moderate and light viewers.’ Chi-square value confirms a significant
association between level of cable television viewing and level of the effect on their
domestic and personal expenditure. It proves that high cable television viewing is
impacting the domestic and personal expenditures of women in Lahore, Pakistan.
The broad picture that emerges from the results is that majority of the respondents
(48.5 percent) admitted that their expenditure on personal dressing and appearance has
got an impact from watching cable television. More is being spent on personal grooming
and clothing in comparison to the past decades. Two-third of the respondents also agreed
that their household expenditure has increased as the exposure they are getting through
cable television is changing their lifestyle and luxuries are being presumed as necessities.
Moreover, there were a growing number of women (43 percent) who are intending to
become an earning hand to meet and provide for this growing expenditure as one male
earning for whole family now could not provide for it alone. (Table 5.53). The trend of
this impact is again directly related to the amount of time spent for viewing cable
television, where high impact is seen on heavy viewers and lighter impact on light
viewers.
Mcquail (1969) supports the finding of this study as “the trance of entertainment
through television channels is so great that no one irrespective of his age, sex and
education can claim immunity from it. The entire study of mass communication is based
on the premises that media has significant effect in every society, yet there is little
agreement on the nature and extent of these assumed effects. He argues that their effects
take various forms. We choose what movies are based on and what we see in
advertisements or in newspapers. We dress in accordance with telecasts that means our
buying habits are shaped” (p.8).
vi. Role of Woman in Society
This means attitude of female viewers, cognition and the way of reasoning. This concept
extends to structuring and re-structuring of social role of viewers. Through this concept,
the researcher intended to go up to the level of finding out whether or not the contents of
the cable television have deformed and reformed the social role of viewers and how this
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reformation was affecting their personality, pattern of earning, getting their rights and
freedom, method of bringing up their children and taking care of their homes.
This factor was operationalzed into eight items which deals with following
indicators:
· Acceptance of Career Women: Acceptance of career for women equivalent to
men
· Sharing of Family Responsibilities by Men and Women: Acceptance of
equally sharing family responsibilities by husband and wife i.e. nurturing
children, sharing of household chores and income generation
· Equal Rights, Respect and Freedom of Women: Acceptance of the idea that
women and men should have equal rights, independence and respect in the
society
The hypothesis stated that ‘heavy viewers of cable television tend to show a
greater degree of acceptance for roles of women as portrayed on Indian and western
channels and as compared to moderate and light viewers’. Chi-square value in the
(Table 5.54) shows a significant association between levels of cable television viewing
and levels of acceptance of role of western and urban Indian women. It established that
high cable television viewing is affecting the social role of women in Lahore, Pakistan.
The role of Pakistani men and women in our social set-up is very clearly defined
where the external responsibilities are linked to men and most of the matters within the
house are responsibilities of women. Decision-making rests with the men, being the bread
winners for the family. Women are not aware of their legal and Islamic rights and are
acting according to the traditional role enforced on them. The role of western women and
urban Indian women is comparatively opposite to the role of Pakistani women. But the
exposure to the foreign media is making an impact and introducing changes in traditional
and stereotype role of Pakistani women.
The broad picture that emerged from the findings of the study confirms that
women respondents accept non-traditional roles. Half of the respondents agreed with the
statement that looking after of children and household is equal responsibility of man and
woman - purely a western approach. Similarly, it was claimed by two-fifth of the
respondents that earning is not only the responsibility of man alone but should be shared
by husband and wife. According to 40 percent of the respondents, Pakistani woman
should pursue a career like the western woman and should put in efforts to get her due
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rights from the society. Majority of the respondents (55 percent) submitted that single
woman should have the right to live a respectable life and if married should have the right
to take decisions on an equitable basis. Two-third of the respondents suggested that there
should be an equal respect for working woman as well as for the housewife. There should
not be any discrimination or character assassination of the working woman and should be
treated with respect and honour. Clear majority of respondents (70 percent) submitted that
woman should also have the right and say in their marriage. The impact was directly
related to the amount of time spent in viewing and high impact is visible in heavy viewers
and lighter impact in light viewers.
Since the most preferred channels by women are Star Plus and Geo TV. dramas
on these channels show women in very powerful roles and show them involved in
intrigues to run and control large, rich and powerful families. These feelings are creeping
in the minds of viewers in their responses and this clearly confirms the hypothesis that
cable television is having a great impact on its viewers. Wilson also agrees with the view
that television can change viewers’ attitudes and orientation. In his book “Youth culture
and universities” which was written in the background of youth disturbances worldwide,
he emphasized the influence of television on moulding and restructuring their of attitude.
5.28.1 Major Hypothesis
Greater the exposure to cable television the greater the effect on the lives of women
in Lahore, Pakistan.
The major hypothesis is sustained by all the factors under the study that included
domestic and other activities, appearance and styles, social and family interaction
patterns, cultural practices, expenditure and role of women in Pakistani society. The
findings of the study confirmed that greater the exposure to cable television the
greater the effect on the lives of women in Lahore, Pakistan. The statistical analysis
and percentage of responses proves all the sub-hypothesis of the study except interaction
patterns which is partially accepted.
Mcquail (1969) also expressed the significance of media with reference to its
effects. He stated that “media has occupied a prominent place in our daily lives, providing
stuff from which we form our identities, construct meaning and organize our very
existence. Today, media service is the nervous system of modern society. Electronic
media is the most important invention in the communication technology. Teachers teach,
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governments govern and religious leaders preach but media totally changes the lifestyle
of people.”
This study strengthens the concept of Blumler and Katz’s Uses and Gratification
Theory, which suggests that media users play an active role in choosing and using the
media. Users take an active part in the communication process and are goal-oriented in
media usage. The ‘Uses and Gratification Theory’ looks at the ways individuals use
media to gratify their needs. Thus the communication behaviour of audience is goaloriented
and motivated. They make viewing selections on personal motivations, goals and
needs and these factors influence what they actually see and hear (Hockney, 1988: 130).
This theory explores individuals’ fantasy seeking and looking for an escape from their
everyday lives. Are they really seeking reality and using media as a learning instrument?
As this study was based on the impact of cable television which provides variety of
channels and freedom of choice to viewers. Therefore, it investigated what are the reasons
of watching cable television and what channels and programmes the respondents
preferred to watch. The targeted population of the present study was women of Lahore,
Pakistan, only and majority of respondents were house managers. As for as the reasons of
their watching were concerned, the findings revealed that entertainment was the first
priority of majority of the respondents. This was again confirmed through their preferred
channels and programmes.
According to Uses and Gratifications Theory, media consumers have a free will to
decide how they will use media and how it will affect them. Although a variety of
channels (news, informative, educational, cooking, entertainment, etc.) are available to
women and they can approach them with the click of a button, but a majority of the
respondents were used to watch entertainment channels only and their most favorite
programme was drama followed by movies and music. This indicates that television may
be the best or the only source of entertainment for them. Thus, the study confirmed that
the utility of television for them to seek entertainment and time-passing as compared to
learning and getting information.
Research has shown that dependency on a medium is the result of two major
factors: Viewer motives for obtaining gratifications and the availability of viewing
alternatives. Each of these factors may be affected by any number of social or
psychological characteristics. A person with limited mobility would be more likely to
become dependent on a medium such as television if he/she did not have access to other
media options such as personal computer, VCR, computer games etc., at home. If the
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situation of women in Pakistan is analysed with this reference, it can be concluded that
most of the time women don’t have alternatives for entertainment. To satisfy their
recreation needs like sports facilities, outing, parties, etc., they are dependent on
television for this purpose. Thus, the best possible option for gratifications for most of
women in Pakistan is television and particularly entertainment channels and programmes.
It is easy to assume that television has become a daily activity in our society so it is not
surprising that in some cases people may go beyond the actual act of just watching for
entertainment.
The theory takes out the possibility that media can have an unconscious influence
over our lives and the global perspective. The idea that we simply use media to satisfy a
given need does not seem to fully recognize the power of media in today’s world.
Dependency upon media may lead to effect in itself. For example, attitude change might
occur and thus affect other elements in the Model. The greater the dependency upon a
medium, the more likely that medium will have effects upon the viewer. Therefore,
through these dramas (soap operas) and movies they get fascinated and managed to
escape from the bitter realities of their lives for some time. The reason for watching cable
television was entertainment but the unconscious influence as a result of it is change in
the attitude and getting away from real and personal values.
To investigate the effects of cable television watching on women, the present
study also holds up cultivation research by George Gerbner, which states that heavy
exposure to mass media, namely television, creates and cultivates attitudes more
consistent with a media-conjured version of reality than with what actual reality is.
Cultivation Theory states that television is developing thinking of human being slowly
and steadily which affects social, cultural and traditional values of the societies.
According to this theory, those who are heavy viewers are affected more. The result of
the study supports the theory as heavy viewers were affected more than light viewers at
all levels - domestic and other activities, appearance and styles, social and family
interaction patterns, cultural practices , expenditure and role of women in Pakistani
society.
Gerbner and his colleagues contend that television drama has a small but
significant influence on attitudes, beliefs and judgments of viewers concerning the social
world. Thus, the focus of study was on heavy viewers. People who watch a lot of
television are likely to be more influenced by the ways in which the world is framed by
television programmes than are individuals who watch less regarding topics of which the
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viewer has little first-hand experience. Light viewers may have more sources of
information than heavy viewers. The results of the present research strengthen the
concept of cultivation through media. A majority of the respondents have accepted and
practicing the Indian and western values systems consciously or unconsciously. The
Cultivation Theory suggests that peoples’ values and their outlooks on life can become
distorted and greatly affected by soap operas which are confirmed by this study.
The Cultivation Theory asserts that heavy viewers' attitudes are cultivated
primarily by what they watch on television. It looks at mass media as a socializing agent
and investigates whether television viewers come to believe television version of reality,
the more they watch it. This study witnessed a clear change in food and eating habits.
Western and Indian traditions celebrations were followed more by heavy viewers as
compared to light viewers. Their language has been affected. Their socialization patterns
were gradually changing as heavy viewers’ social interaction time is reducing particularly
with friends. The Cultivation Theory in its basic form suggests that television is
responsible for shaping or ‘cultivating’ viewers’ conceptions of social reality which is
being confirmed through this study. The results of this research also support Gerbner
when he says that combined effect of massive television exposure by viewers over time
subtly shapes the perception of social reality for individuals and, ultimately, for culture as
a whole. Cultivation Theory suggests that peoples’ values and their outlook towards life
can become distorted and greatly affected by soap operas.
The present study also applied the Social Learning Theory which explains how
environment influences the behaviour of an individual. Despite general in nature, “Social
Learning Theory is particularly relevant to study, the impact of mass communication
because the description and portrayal of social life is a frequent subject in media
contents” (DeFleur and Sandra 1989). Literature has shown that viewers acquire attitudes,
emotional responses and new styles of conduct from media, especially from films and
television (Bandra, 1973 and Liebert et al.1973). The theory clearly establishes that media
can serve as agents in the socialization process.
The finding of the study also corresponds to the observation made by Albert
Bandura while discussing Social Learning Theory. According to him, learning occurs
when the observer perceives events or behaviour in television and he/she feels competent
in performing them. Actions of the characters in cable television dramas have served as a
model for respondents to imitate. They have also acquired behaviours by people from
media portrayals. Bandura also suggested that behaviour is likely to be imitated when it is
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socially rewarded. The result indicates that majority of the respondents do take television
characters as their role models and want to copy them in appearance and style.
Interestingly, majority of the respondents disagreed that they did relate characters to their
lives despite they do copy in more than one area. This shows that the respondents just
follow the outlook of characters with respect to lifestyle and not themselves as a whole.
Reason may be that characters shown in cable television dramas are not acceptable or
may not be rewarded in our society. Heavy viewers were imitating cable television drama
characters jewellery, dresses, make-up and hair style. They love to talk in their accent,
think and behave like them.
Any person’s socialization process is influenced by innumerable factors such as
family, school, environmental etc. Direct experience and participation are important
parameters which shape his/her impressions of the perceived structure of their
environment. However, these forms of experience are usually limited to the immediate
environment. Mass media, particularly television, plays a crucial role in bringing the
outside world into homes. Mass media as an important institution enters the socialization
process of an individual.
This study proves the hypothesis ‘greater the exposure to cable television
greater the effect on the lives of women in Lahore, Pakistan and implies an
association between cable television viewing and affects on viewers. Majority of the
respondents have inclined towards and ready to accept the role of western women
exposed to them through cable television channels. The study has claimed that this
relationship can in some cases be life-changing and personality moulding, but definitely
life impacting. More importantly, it appears that they can occur and one may not even
realize it. Ultimately, it becomes clear that television is one of the today's most dynamic
media vehicles touching more people than other communication vehicles.
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CHAPTER 6
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
This study explored the “effects of cable television on life patterns of women in Lahore,
Pakistan.” The study provided results by comparing life patterns of heavy, moderate and
light viewers. Cable television technology has been introduced in Pakistan during the last
decade. The year 2000 witnessed mushrooming of the cable television network all over
the country after getting a legal approval from the government. This raised the question
that the cable television may have effects on viewers because it is quite affordable,
available round the clock, enhances the choice and provides a variety of channels and
programmes, both foreign and local. Findings of previous related research have made the
researcher conclude that television does have some direct or indirect effects on viewers
but no study has been carried out to gauge it in Lahore, Pakistan. Therefore, this research
probed into whether or not and how much effect cable television has on women in
Lahore, Pakistan.
The core purpose of this study was to dig out the influence of foreign channels or
local channels with foreign contents on the social life and attitudes of female viewers.
Therefore, at one level the study records the consumption patterns and measures their
level of viewing i.e. duration of having connection, channels and kinds of programs are
preferred, reasons and favorite time of watching, control over remote, women’s right and
restriction on viewing. It also analyses the relationship between above factors and level of
viewing besides demographic information of respondents i.e. age, education, resident
area, profession, income, marital status, etc.
The major hypothesis studied was “greater the exposure to cable television greater
the impact on the lives of women.” The sub-hypotheses included heavy viewers of cable
television experience a greater degree of effect on their domestic and other activities, on
their family and social interaction patterns, cultural practices and on their domestic and
personal expenditure than the moderate and light viewers. It was also hypothesized that
heavy viewers (women) of cable television tend to show a greater degree of acceptance of
television characters appearance and style and of role of western and urban Indian women
than the moderate and light viewers. These factors were based on the conclusion drawn
after reviewing the relevant literature as most of the studies were of the view that
television viewing generates socio-economic and cultural changes.
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The researcher has formulated an amalgam of three theories. In order to assess
what is the main reason of the respondents’ watching cable television, their preferred
channels and programmes ‘Uses and Gratifications Theory’ was applied. Main part of the
present research comes under the effect tradition. It demanded discussion on theories
based on observational learning and information processing to emphasize lasting effects
of exposure to media contents. Thus, the study also applied Cultivation Theory in terms
of effect (which can be small, gradual, indirect but cumulative and significant) through
exposure (depending upon heavy and light viewership of cable television) and Social
Learning Theory which says that viewers attend and learn from models which are
attractive, powerful, rewarding and similar to themselves. Hence, the framework of this
research was based on the set of three theories i.e. Uses and Gratification Theory,
Cultivation Theory and Social Learning Theory.
In this study, survey method has been applied to obtain data that was quantitative
in nature from large representative but diverse and widely scattered population. Due to
the time and budgetary limitations, the total area covered by the study was Lahore only.
The total population of this study was all female cable television viewers, aged 18 to 40
years, reside in Lahore and viewing cable television for at least two years. According to
PEMRA the estimated number of cable television subscribers in Lahore was 350,000 and
the expected number of women targeted in this study was one fourth of the total
viewership, i.e. 500,000. It was not feasible for the researcher to approach the total
population therefore sampling technique was applied. The government administrative
division (which divides Lahore into six towns) was used and equal respondents from each
town were selected by applying non-probability quota sampling.
The respondents selected for data collection were aged 18-40 years and viewing
cable television for a minimum period of two years. The researcher preferred this period
of life of a woman for the study because it is the most vibrant, active and dynamic part of
her life. This criterion was further divided into three categories -- heavy viewers (viewing
cable television for 4 and more than 4 hours a day), moderate viewers (viewing cable
television for more than 2 but less than 4 hours a day) and light viewers (viewing cable
television for 1 to 2 hours a day) -- instead of two as the researcher intended to have two
extremes i.e. light and heavy viewers.
Working women and house managers both were interviewed whereas students
were deliberately excluded from the sample. The total sample size was 432 and
interviews’ schedule (verbal interview based on questionnaire) was preferred as a tool for
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data collection because some of the respondents were illiterate and were not able to read
and answer the questionnaire. The study was carried out during 2004-07 and the data was
collected in 2005.
The researcher has used the Statistical Package for the Social Science (SPSS
Version 13.0) for analyzing the data. Sample data has been analyzed separately to
examine each hypothesis. As the study evaluated the association between exposure to
cable television and change in the life patterns of women, therefore, statistical tool Chi-
Square has been used. Each of dependant variables was operationalised into a set of
parameters and answers were obtained on Likert–point scale. The next step in measure
was construction of scale. The researcher made a three-point scale, comprising three
points as high, medium and low for dependent variables. The data was analyzed through
univariate and bivariate statistical procedures and the results have been presented in two
categories: i.e. general and major findings of hypothesis testing.
The general findings concluded that majority of respondents have cable
connection for the last two years, and they are enjoying watching cable television instead
of reading books, playing games and going out for leisure. This proves that the level of
acceptance and popularity of cable television amongst the people of Lahore is increasing
day by day. It has become a main source of entertainment in Pakistan which like other
developing countries has limited recreation facilities. But also indicates that the
respondents are sticking to television at the cost of healthy mental and physical activities.
Majority of the respondents were aged 31 to 40 years (60 per cent). In Pakistan,
women of this age group are generally married. More than often they are the nucleus of
the family and responsible for household activities, rearing of children, taking care of
husband etc. Majority of the respondents belonged to middle and upper middle class with
graduation, as minimum qualification but unemployed or house managers. And it is
established that majority of them were heavy viewers because they had easy access to
cable network and ample time to watch it. The conclusion is that heavy viewers belonged
to this age and income group are probably neglecting their basic family role.
The research also probed whether there was any association between level of
viewing and demographic characteristics of respondents i.e. age, education, income,
profession etc. The conclusion is that there was no association between the level of
viewing and age of respondents. However, highest percentage of heavy and light viewers
fell in the age group 26-30 and 18-25 years respectively. This was interesting to note that
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the lowest percentage of heavy viewers belonged to the age group of 18-25 years as it is
in contrast to the general belief that this age group falls in the heavy viewers’ category.
As for as the association between the level of viewing and qualification of
respondents is concerned the study concludes that higher the level of qualification lower
the level of viewing cable television. Similarly an association exists between the level of
viewing and profession of respondents. House managers, who were non-professionals,
spare more time for watching cable television as compared to the working women. Thus
establishes those house managers are more vulnerable to effects from cable television as
compare to working class.
There was no association between the level of viewing and residing area of
respondents. Similarly, no significant association between the level of viewing and
income of respondents was seen. However, those belonging to monthly income group of
over Rs. 25,000 were the highest heavy viewers and Rs 15,001-20,000 the lowest heavy
viewers. Likewise there was no association between the level of viewing and marital
status of respondents. Marital status does not matter as each category has shown equal
interest in watching cable television.
The study also analyzed the respondents’ aim of watching cable television
channels. The most frequently mentioned reason was entertainment and relaxation
followed by the urge to know about foreign countries, education and guidance. The
second enlisted reason confirms the curiosity about foreign lands but it makes
respondents vulnerable to outlandish influences including culture.
When respondents were categorized according to the level of viewing and the
purpose of watching, it was found out that a majority of the heavy viewers watch
entertainment-oriented programmes as compared to information and news and their main
aim of watching cable television is to relax.
Foreign channels preferred by respondents included Star Plus, Zee TV, Sony
Entertainment TV, Star Movies, HBO and BBC and Pakistani channels included Geo TV,
ARY, Indus Vision and Ptv World. It has been noted that foreign channels are the most
popular among the respondents. Findings also reveal an interesting result that the Indian
channel ‘Star Plus’ has the highest following among foreign and local channels mainly
because of it soap operas.
As far as respondents preferred programmes are concerned, they were asked to
enlist all of their favourite programmes on cable television channels and their responses
were accumulated and found that majority of the respondents preferred to watch purely
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entertainment-oriented programmes. The data indicated that the most favourite
programme of the three-forth respondents was drama followed by movies. On the
contrary, information programmes were preferred by one-forth of the respondents. A
significant association between the level of viewing and preference for specific
programmes was found. It was noticeable that drama is the first preference of all types of
viewers i.e. heavy, moderate and light.
As far as the television’s remote control device is concerned, almost half of the
respondents told that male members of the family control the remote of television. In all
the cases i.e. heavy, moderate and light viewers, similar situation prevailed. The
respondents also complained that men have more rights to watch cable television than
women. This confirms the notion that males dominate society in Pakistan, and women do
not have full freedom even in matters like selecting a television channel.
Majority of the heavy viewers prefer to watch cable television alone whereas the
highest number of light viewers was interested in watching cable television while sitting
with their families. It indicates that heavy viewers prefer to be isolated or watch such
programmes which they cannot watch with their families. In response to the favourite
watching time, more than three-fourth of the respondents preferred to watch cable
television after 7:00 pm (prime time). It has already been verified that the respondents’
first priority in programmes was dramas, preferably watched on Star Plus.
With reference to the restrictions on watching cable television only a small
number (17.8 percent) of the respondent admitted that restrictions regarding certain time
and programmes are enforced on them by their families, whereas majority of the
respondents (68.5 percent) denied any such restrictions. This proves the fact that cable
television is warmly accepted and used without any hesitation. Respondents who were
restricted claimed that they were told not to watch stage dramas, music programmes and
movies. Restrictions were imposed because of vulgarity in programmes as this is against
the religion, against their values and culture and viewing cable television can affect their
working. Night time is the restricted one as they would be unable to give time to their
families and secondly it would disturb their reading habits also.
When respondents were asked to point out whether men also face restriction on
watching cable television, the result indicated that men do not have any restriction of
watching cable television as they are considered mature, independent and masters of their
will.
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Although the findings above made it clear that a few respondents (women) were
restricted to watch cable television’s certain programmes at times. However, they were
also asked whether the women at their homes have equal rights as men to watch cable
television. Majority of respondents claimed that they are treated equally as men in
reference to watching cable television. Almost three-fifth of them complained that men
had more rights to watch cable television and a negligible percent (0.2%) admitted that
they had more rights than men. This concludes that discrimination (at limited level) in the
use of communication technology also exists, which further supports the fact that our
society is male dominated.
Majority of the respondents also claimed that they enjoy watching cable television
instead of reading books, playing games and going out for leisure during their free time.
Judging by the data it can be concluded that cable television has become an important
household commodity and an important part of women’s daily life in Lahore.
The conclusions of hypothesis testing related to the dependent variables.
The first sub-hypothesis was heavy viewers of cable television experience
greater degree of effect on their domestic and other activities than the moderate and
light viewers. The data analyzed by Chi-square produced statistically significant
association between level of cable television viewing and level of the effect on household
and other activities. Types of activities affected were newspaper and magazines reading
and going out for movies.
The second hypothesis heavy viewers of cable television experience a greater
degree of change on their family and social interaction patterns than the moderate
and light viewers was also statistically proved. It confirmed that our social interaction
patterns are under the influence of cable television and changing rapidly. The most
affected categories were friends and relatives interactions. Respondents dislike visiting
others and do not welcome open heartedly or entertain their guests during primetime
hours. It is concluded that cable television is affecting social interaction patterns as
respondents are rather enjoying their cable television programmes than socializing which
is a major part of Pakistani culture.
As far as the respondents’ family interaction was concerned, husband- wife
interaction is being affected but not as much as social interaction. Decline in Mother-child
interaction was not proved by the statistical analysis. This confirms that Mother-child
interaction is not disturbing due to the viewing of cable television. But still the situation is
alarming as majority does not like family interference and avoid going out with their
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families while watching cable television. Therefore family interaction time is decreasing
because husband, wife and mother as well as children are glued to cable television. The
affection and bond among the family members is the beauty of our culture which may be
affected badly because of cable television viewing.
This research also tried to discover: “Was the target audience associating their
personal appearance and style with television characters”? The study describes
appearance and lifestyle as dress style, hairstyle, make-up, jewellery and accent adopted
by women. The hypothesis developed was ‘heavy viewers of cable television tend to
show a greater degree of acceptance of television characters’ appearance and style
than the moderate and light viewers.’ Chi-square value indicated a significant
association between level of cable television viewing and level of acceptance of television
characters’ appearance and style. A majority of heavy viewers was being highly affected
and light viewers were showing minimal effects in terms of appearance and style. The
data showed that greatest impact of watching cable television is on jewellery and
ornamental style. Half of the respondents considered television characters as their role
model for appearance and style and they wanted to imitate those characters. Respondents
copy these characters for dressing, make-up, decorative jewellery and try to copy their
accent. But majority of respondents does not agree that they relate themselves to
television characters. The style and glamour projected through drama is although out of
line from our original style but is making an impact on viewers according to their level of
their viewing. Our women are inclining towards change, for better or worse, by following
television characters. This study also confirms and approves the Social Learning and
Modelling theories.
Another investigated factor through this research was culture practices. This factor
was dealing with five parameters including language, food, dressing, religion and some of
the traditions. It was hypothized as heavy viewers of cable television experience greater
degree of effect on their cultural practices than the moderate and light viewers. The
statistical analysis significantly proves association between the level of cable television
viewing and the level of the effect on cultural practices. It implies that high television
viewing is influencing cultural practices in Lahore, Pakistan, and women are accepting
western and Indian culture.
There has been an evident impact of cable television on food habits as majority
has introduced western food dishes in their homes. Whereas, the addition of Indian dishes
is negligible according to the respondents because the Indian food programmes are few
164
and they are mostly focused on vegetables and not on meat dishes. The focus of viewers
of Indian channels is on drama and they are not eager to watch food programmes on
television channels like Star Plus. Most of the respondents preferred to dine in front of
television and discuss television characters than family issues. This hints at a major
change in our society, robbing people of the tradition of eating together and making the
routine an opportunity of discussing their issues. Those who still dine together mainly
discuss television programmes they watch. This proves that now the television is
connecting people to the world unknown while creating a communication gap in their
own families.
Casual western dressing has inspired one-fourth of the respondents and they like
to wear western dresses. But a majority of the respondents does not feel inclined to
western dresses. On the other hand, almost all respondents replied in negative in response
to wearing Indian dresses (Saree) casually but one-third liked to wear it as a party dress
due to their colour and grace. Two-third respondents consider cable television as an
effective source of learning about fashion trends. Therefore, it is convincing that cable
television is affecting its viewers in dress trends and its effects are directly related to the
viewership, with heavy viewers being affected the most.
Urdu language is getting unwanted additions due to invasion of foreign words
(Hindi and English). The study concluded that high impact on language of heavy viewers
and light impact on language of light viewers supports the hypothesis. A new language
which is a mix of Urdu, English and Hindi words is emerging. Since women are centre to
every household and early education, training and learning of children is carried out by
them. Any effect on women’s language is transferred to their children and other members
of their families. Mother tongue is the language which a child learns from his or her
mother. And a defective mother tongue means adulteration in the very beginning.
Traditions play a key role in the formation of cultural identification therefore
effect of foreign traditions that are being introduced through cable television has also
been studied in this study. Majority of the respondents admitted that they celebrate Hindu
marriage traditions and a very small number (1.6 percent) of the respondents were
celebrating Holi. This is a start of accepting something totally against our traditions.
Valentine’s Day is warmly celebrated by majority of respondents and Halloween and
Bonfire are also celebrated by some of the respondents. The impact again shows high
influence on heavy viewers and little on light viewers. These findings strongly suggest
165
that cable television is resulting in erosion of Pakistani culture and is introducing Indian
and western culture.
Religion has been the main driving forces for the campaign for independence of
Pakistan. Religious sentiments are easily inflamed and all the channels are particularly
careful not to raise any religion conflict. Majority of the respondents agreed that
television is the best source of religious information.
Cable television is influencing traditional and cultural values in Pakistan and
respondents are accepting it. The effects are clearly visible on food, dining habits,
dressing, language, traditional celebrations and religion. The influence is a reality and it
needs to be thoroughly researched to check the positive or negative impact on Pakistani
culture. The trend according to this research is showing patterns that should be a cause of
concern as far as cultural values are concerned in Pakistan.
Another Sub-hypothesis of the study was designed as ‘heavy viewers of cable
television experience a greater degree of effect on their domestic and personal
expenditures than the moderate and light viewers.’ Chi-square value confirmed a
significant association between level of cable television viewing and level of the effect on
their domestic and personal expenditure. The broad picture that emerges from the results
is that majority of the respondents admitted that their expenditure on personal dressing
and appearance has got an impact from watching cable television. More is being spent on
personal grooming and clothing as compared to the past decades. Household expenditure
has increased as the exposure they are getting through cable television is changing their
lifestyle and luxuries are being presumed as necessities. Moreover, a growing number of
women are intending to become an earning hand to meet their families’ increasing
expenditure and to share the burden of their men.
The study also hypnotized that ‘heavy viewers of cable television tend to show a
greater degree of acceptance of roles of women as portrayed on Indian and western
channels as compared to moderate and light viewers’. Chi-square value showed a
significant association between level of cable television viewing and level of acceptance
of role of western and urban Indian women. It establishes that high cable television
viewing is affecting the social role of women in Lahore, Pakistan.
The social role of Pakistani men and women is clearly defined where the external
responsibilities are linked to men and most of the house matters are responsibilities of
women. Decision-making rests with the men, being the bread winners for the family.
Women are not aware of their legal and Islamic rights and are acting according to the
166
traditional role enforced on them. The role of western women and urban Indian women is
comparatively contrary to the role of Pakistani women. But the exposure to the foreign
media is making an impact and introducing changes in traditional and stereotype role of
Pakistani women.
The broad picture that emerged from the findings of the study confirms that
women respondents are accepting non-traditional roles. Half of the respondents agreed
with western approach that earning should be shared by husband and wife and looking
after of children and household is equal responsibility of man and woman. Similarly, it
claimed that a woman should have equal rights in decision making, pursuing a career and
should have say in their marriage like the western woman. The study also concluded that
society should give respect to working women as well as to housewives, single women
should have the right to live a respectable life, and they should strive to get their due
rights. The impact is directly related to the amount of time spent in viewing and high
impact is visible in heavy viewers and lighter impact in light viewers.
The major hypothesis is sustained by all the factors under the study included
household and other activities, appearance and styles, social and family interaction
patterns, cultural practices, expenditure and role of women in Pakistani society. The
statistical analysis and percentage of responses proves all the sub-hypotheses of the study
except mother child interaction. Thus proves the major hypothesis ‘greater the exposure
to cable television greater the effect on the lives of women in Lahore, Pakistan. It
implies an association between cable television viewing and affects on viewers. Majority
of the respondents are inclined to foreign culture and are ready to accept the appearance
and role of western women exposed to them through cable television channels. The study
has claimed that this relationship can in some cases be life-changing and personality
moulding, but definitely life impacting. More importantly, it appears that it can occur and
one may not even realize it.
This study strengthens the concept of Blumler and Katz’s Uses and Gratification
Theory, which suggests that media users play an active role in choosing and using the
media. As far as the consumption patterns and reasons of their watching were concerned
the study concluded that women use cable television primarily for fantasy and to escape
their routine lives. It is not a source of seeking reality and using media as a learning
instrument for the majority. The study supports the Uses and Gratifications Theory
because media consumers (women in this study) have a free will to decide how they will
use media and how it will affect them. Although a variety of channels (news, informative,
167
educational, cooking, entertainment, etc.) are available to women but a majority of the
respondents were used to watch entertainment channels only and their most favorite
programme was drama followed by movies and music.
Respondents with limited mobility (house managers) would be more likely to
become dependent on a medium such as television if she does not have access to other
media options such as a personal computer, VCR, computer games etc., at home. Thus
the study concludes that television is the best or the only source available to women for
entertainment. To satisfy their recreation needs like sports facilities, outing, parties, etc.,
they are dependent on television for this purpose. Thus, the best possible option for
gratifications for most of women in Pakistan is television and particularly entertainment
channels and programmes. It is easy to assume that television has become a daily activity
in our society so it is not surprising that in some cases women may go beyond the actual
act of just watching for entertainment. Through dramas (soap operas) and movies the
respondents get fascinated and managed to escape from the bitter realities of their lives
for some time but these lead to effects. Apparently the reason for watching cable
television is entertainment but the unconscious influence as a result of it is change in the
attitude and getting away from real and personal values.
To investigate the effects of cable television watching on women, the present
study also applied cultivation research by George Gerbner, which states that heavy
exposure to mass media, namely television, creates and cultivates attitudes more
consistent with a media-conjured version of reality than with what actual reality is. It says
television is developing thinking of human being slowly and steadily which affects social,
cultural and traditional values of the societies. According to this theory, those who are
heavy viewers are affected more. The result of the study supports the theory as heavy
viewers are affected more than light viewers at all levels – household and other activities,
appearance and styles, social and family interaction patterns, cultural practices ,
expenditure and role of women in Pakistani society.
A majority of the respondents have accepted and are practicing the Indian and
western values systems consciously or unconsciously. The heavy viewers' attitudes are
cultivated primarily by what they watch on television. It seems that mass media has
worked as a socializing agent. Therefore, the study witnessed a clear change in food and
eating habits. Western and Indian traditions celebrations are followed more by heavy
viewers as compared to light viewers. Their language has been affected. Their
socialization patterns are gradually changing as heavy viewers’ family and social
168
interaction time is reducing particularly with friends and relatives. The Cultivation
Theory in its basic form suggests that television is responsible for shaping or ‘cultivating’
viewers’ conceptions of social reality which is being confirmed through this study. It may
be concluded that combined effect of massive television exposure by viewers over time
subtly shapes the perception of social reality for individuals and, ultimately, for culture as
a whole.
The conclusion of the study also corresponds to the observation made by Albert
Bandura while discussing Social Learning Theory. According to him, learning occurs
when the observer perceives events or behaviour in television and he/she feels competent
in performing them. Actions of the characters in cable television dramas have served as a
model for respondents to imitate. They have also acquired behaviours by people from
media portrayals. Social Learning Theory also suggested that behaviour is likely to be
imitated when it is socially rewarded. The result indicates that majority of the respondents
do take television characters as their role models and want to copy them in appearance
and style. Interestingly, a majority of the respondents have disagreed that they relate
characters to their lives despite copying them in more than one area. This shows that the
respondents just follow the outlook of characters with respect to lifestyle and not
themselves as a whole. Reason may be that viewers have the fear that characters shown in
cable television programmes are not acceptable or may not be rewarded in the society.
169
6.1 Recommendations
This study proved the hypothesis ‘greater the exposure to cable television greater the
effect on the lives of women in Lahore, Pakistan’ and implied that there is an association
between cable television viewing and effects on viewers. The study claimed that this
relationship in some cases can change life patterns or mould personalities. More
importantly, it appears that these changes can occur and one may not even realize them.
Television is one of the most dynamic media vehicles influencing more people than most
other communication vehicles. Therefore, viewers are required to be alert and use it
sensibly. Policy-makers should take extreme care while formulating rules and regulations.
This research also supports the Cultivation Theory by George Gerbner that states
that “more you watch television the more you are likely to obtain distorted views on life”.
Similar conclusion was made in the study by Altman and Taylor (1973), which
hypothesized that the more time people spend watching television and involving
themselves with the characters, the more they become intimate with media persona. They
may unconsciously live more closely with characters of cable television programmes as
compared to people in their real life. These programmes can change their attitude and
make them emotional. People may take more dramatic approach to their personal
situation. This study gives the same indication. This kind of situation may arise because
Pakistani society is not media literate. Majority of population is not trained how to
analyze/utilize different forms of media like news papers, radio, television and internet. It
is therefore recommended that efforts should be made for the enhancement of media
literacy at mass level.
This study reveals that television has grown enough to become an important and
an integral part of daily activities in today’s world. It is not surprising that in some cases
people may go beyond the actual act of watching it for entertainment. This study exposes
that soap operas and movies were among the most watched by women on cable
television. The soap operas are a unique form of entertainment, different from other
television drama and are especially significant because the target audience appears to be
predominantly women. It is interesting to note that hardly any in-depth study has been
conducted on this type of mass communication in Pakistan. Therefore, it is recommended
that effects of these soap operas must be targeted for research studies in future. Especially
the aspect of sexual behavior should be stressed upon because the Cultivation Theory
170
suggests that peoples’ values and their outlooks on life can become distorted and greatly
affected by soap operas.
The results of the study have confirmed the impact on women cable television
impacting women in Pakistan and they have been influenced by western and Indian
values. It is evident that television influences many lives across the board. People who
produce programmes for television have great responsibility in today’s world. As a media
scholar, the researcher feels that this issue should be taken seriously and best effort
should be made to sensitize producers and broadcasters for improving the quality of
whatever they are bringing to general public.
To minimize and resist the effects of western and Indian channels, it is suggested
that local channels should be strengthened and programmes should have better content.
These channels should produce and broadcast quality programmes that could help in the
promotion of Pakistani values and traditions and improve the image of Pakistan at
international level.
171
6.2 Recommendations for Future Research
This section presents some recommendations for future research regarding the effects of
cable television channels.
This study has provided a baseline study on the effects of cable television
technology particularly on women. It has explored only some factors and analyzed the
effects on women in general. However, the researcher has planned to work in future on
more specific aspects and evaluate effect on women with different demographic
background. There is a need to gauge the impact on population belonging to different
social classes, income levels, qualifications and among different age groups. Similarly,
some other dimensions like family norms, music preferences, etc. can also be
investigated.
The present research did not study the impact of specific programmes of foreign
television on the viewers. So a combination of content analysis and a survey in a study
may be more interesting and valuable. Therefore, the researcher is interested in
conducting such a study in future for publication in research journals.
Research in this area (effects of cable television) requires inter-disciplinary
approaches as its effects may be social, psychological, economic, etc.
Cable television has spread all over the country due to its legalization, easy
access, low cost, availability of satellite channels and large number of television viewers.
The cable television requires systematic studies based on a variety of methods and diverse
populations. The validity and reliability measures of this research cannot be generalized
to all of the population as it only targeted women. There is a need to begin with smallscale
studies and move to a larger field and longitudinal studies. Small-scale studies
(laboratory, survey, observational) can permit refinement of questions, measures and
methods in a relatively low-cost and efficient way.
Cable television provides a variety of channels including local and foreign. One
can find sexual media content easily in the foreign programmes which enhancing the
importance of research on effects of sexual media contents in Pakistan. Further research
must take into account gender difference in general and also in different environments.
Functions and effects of media contents may vary for boys and girls or for males and
females substantially.
Pakistani society is a male dominated and gender discrimination has been verified
through some of researches in social science. This study also slightly dealt with this issue
172
and concluded that in Pakistan men as compared to women do not have any restriction in
cable television viewing. It is suggested that this issue should be addressed separately in
an in-depth study and men should also be interviewed to accurately determine the gender
discrimination.
173
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xiii
APPENDICES
APPENDIX – I
Table 5.1: Distribution of Respondents According to Duration of having Cable
Connection
Duration f %
24 months
127 29.4
25 – 36 months
100 23.1
37 - 48 months
102 23.6
More than 48
months
103 23.8
Total 432 100.0
Table 5. 2: Distribution of Respondents by Level of Viewing
Level of viewing f %
Heavy viewers 144 33.3
Moderate viewers 145 33.6
Light viewers 143 33.1
Total 432 100.0
xiv
Table 5. 12: Preferences for Channels
Preferred Channels Channels
Identity
f %
Star Plus Foreign 341 78.9
GEO Pakistani 301 69.7
ARY Pakistani 145 33.6
Indus Vision Pakistani 95 22.0
Star Movies Foreign 83 19.2
HBO Foreign 80 18.5
Ptv World Pakistani 77 17.8
BBC Foreign 74 17.1
ZEE TV Foreign 54 12.5
Sony Foreign 31 7.2
Base- multiple responses were allowed so the sum may add-up to more than the
actual number.
Table 5.14 : Respondents Preferred Programmes
Programmes f %
Drama 329 76.2
Movies 148 34.3
Music
116 26.9
Religious 69 16.0
Information 110 25.5
Cooking 41 9.5
Base- multiple responses were allowed so the sum may add-up to more than the actual
number.
xv
Table 5. 16: Preference of Watching Television
Watching
television f %
Alone
210 48.6
With Family
222 51.4
Total
432 100.0
Table 5. 18: Remote Control
Family Members f %
Children
44
10.2
Men (family head)
203
47.0
Respondent
(women)
70
16.2
Old age
30
6.9
Youngsters
85
19.7
Total
432
100.0
Table 5. 20: Favourite Time of watching Cable Television
Time f %
Before 2 pm
44
10.2
2 pm To 7 pm
52
12.0
After 7 pm
336
77.8
Total
432
100.0
xvi
Table 5. 24: Women’s right to watch Cable Television
Right to watch f %
Not at all 1 0.2
Less than men 253 58.6
Equal to men 178 41.2
Total 432 100.0
Table 5. 25: Recreation
Source of Recreation f %
Television
240
55.6
Book reading
58
13.4
Outing or game
134
31.0
Total
432
100.0
Table 5. 26: Hurdle in Domestic and other Activities
Hrdles f %
Agree (high) 243 56.3
Undecided (moderate)
45
10.4
Disagree( low) 144
33.3
Total 432 100.0
xvii
Table 5. 28: Affected Activities of Respondents
Activity f %
Cooking and serving time
154 63.0
Reading newspaper and
magazines 232 95.5
Listening of music 211 86.8
Going for outing 48 19.8
Going to movies 225 92.6
going for shopping 70 28.8
Reading books 195 80.2
Prayer and reading
religious books 122 50.2
Base- multiple responses were allowed so the sum may add-up to more than the actual
number
x viii
Table 5. 30: Interaction Pattern
Agree
Undecided
Disagree
Variable
f
%
f
%
f
%
Mean
Relative interaction
reduced
240
55,6
50
11.6
142
32.9
2.23
Neighbor
interaction
decreased
199
46.1
50
11.6
183
42.4
2.04
Friends interaction
decreased
258
59.7
38
8.8
136
31.5
2.28
Do not visit others
233
53.9
58
13.4
141
32.6
2.21
Does not like to
welcome guest
212
49.1
76
17.6
144
33.3
2.16
Does not like
interference of
family
201
46.5
67
15.5
164
38.0
2.09
Less time for outing
with family
97
22.5
65
15.0
270
62.5
1.60
Husband-Wife
Interaction Time
Decreased
138 47.1 44 15.0 111 37.9 1.50
Mother-Child
Interaction Time
Decreased
135 51.1 33 12.5 96 36.4 1.30
Note--- Number of respondents is different for each variable.
xix
Table 5.32: Appearance and Style
Agree
Undecided
Disagree
Variable
f
%
f
%
f
%
Mean
Television
characters as role
model
206
47.4
46
10.6
180
41.7
2.06
Look like television
characters
206
47.4
83
19.2
143
33.1
2.15
Wear jewellery
resembling
Television
characters
319
73.8
52
12.0
61
14.1
2.60
Emulate accent of
television characters
275
63.7
50
11.6
107
24.8
2.39
Relate with
television character
147
34.0
100
23.1
185
42.8
1.91
Formal dressing and
make up
254
58.8
53
12.3
125
28.9
2.30
Base---Total Respondents for each variable= 432
xx
Table 5. 33: Cultural Practices (Food)
Agree
Undecided
Disagree
Variable
f
%
f
%
f
%
Mean
Addition of western
dishes
288
66.7
1
.2
143
33.1
2.34
Addition of Indian
dishes
7
1.6
24
5.6
401
92.8
1.09
Dine in front of
television
267
61.8
32
7.4
133
30.8
2.31
Discussion on
television
programmes during
meals
233
53.9
28
6.5
171
39.6
2.14
Television an
effective source of
learning cooking
291
69.2
18
4.2
115
26.6
2.43
Base---Total Respondents for each variable= 432
xxi
Table 5.34: Cultural Practices (Dress)
Agree
Undecided
Disagree
Variable
f
%
f
%
f
%
Mean
Wear casual
western dress
130
30.1
0
0
302
69.9
1.60
Wear casual Indian
dress
12
2.8
0
0
420
97.2
1.06
Wear Indian party
dress
205
47.5
9
2.1
218
50.5
1.97
Western party dress
36
8.3
79
18.3
317
73.4
1.35
An effective source
of learning about
fashion trends
393
67.8
37
8.6
102
23.6
2.44
Base---Total respondents for each variable= 432
xxii
Table 5.35: Cultural Practices (Language)
Agree
Undecided
Disagree
Variable
f
%
f
%
f
%
Mean
Like to use other
languages
319
73.8
41
9.5
72
16.7
2.57
Usage of english
words in casual
language
360
83.3
15
3.5
57
13.2
2.7
Usage of Hindi
words in casual
language
291
67.4
23
5.3
118
27.3
2.40
Television as source
of learning
languages
327
75.7
27
6.3
78
18.1
2.58
Learned english
language
372
86.1
33
7.6
27
6.3
2.80
Learned Hindi
language
325
75.2
16
3.7
91
21.1
2.54
Base---Total Respondents for each variable= 432
x xiii
Table 5.36: Cultural Practices (Traditions)
Agree
Undecided
Disagree
Variable
f
%
f
%
f
%
Mean
Celebrate Hindu
marriage traditions
221
51.2
2
0.5
209
48.4
2.03
Celebrate Rakhi
4
.9
0
0
428
99.1
1.02
Celebrate Holi
7
1.6
0
0
425
98.4
1.03
Celebrate Karwa
Chode
0
0
0
0
432
100
1.00
Celebrate Valantine
Day
257
59.5
0
0
175
40.5
2.19
Celebrate
Halloween
35
8.1
0
0
397
91.9
1.16
Celebrate Bonfire
42
9.7
0
0
390
90.3
1.19
Base---Total Respondents for each variable= 432
Table 5.37: Cultural Practices (Religion)
Agree
Undecided
Disagree
Mean
Variable
f
%
f
%
f
%
Television is best
source of religious
information
325
75.2
56
13.0
51
11.8
2.63
Religiosity level
decreased
74
17.1
110
25.5
248
57.4
1.6
Base---Total Respondents for each variable= 432
x xiv
Table 5.38: Personal and Household Expenditure
Agree
Undecided
Disagree
Variable
f
%
f
%
f
%
Mean
Dressing (cloth,
jewellery, make up,
etc.)
209
48.4
58
13.4
165
38.2
2.10
House hold
Expenditure
283
65.5
81
18.8
68
15.7
2.50
Tendency to be an
earning hand
186
43.1
60
13.9
186
43.1
2.00
Base---Total Respondents for each variable= 432
xxv
Table 5.39: Role of Pakistani Women in Society
Agree
Undecided
Disagree
Variable
f
%
f
%
f
%
Mean
Looking after of
children and house
hold
222
51.4
31
7.2
179
41.4
2.1
Earning is equal
responsibility of
husband and wife
180
41.7
58
13.4
194
44.9
1.97
Right to be career
women
173
40.0
47
10.0
212
49.1
1.91
Women should
struggle for her
rights
189
43.8
38
8.8
205
47.5
1.96
Single women
should have right to
live respectable life
237
54.9
83
19.2
112
25.9
2.29
Women should take
active part in
decision making
251
58.1
69
16.0
112
25.9
2.32
Working women
and housewife
should have equal
respect.
270
62.5
101
23.4
61
14.1
2.48
A girl should have
right of love
marriage
306
70.8
36
8.3
90
20.8
2.5
Base---Total Respondents for each variable= 432
xxvi
xxvii
APPENDIX – II
The Profile of Lahore
History
The people of Lahore, when they want to emphasize the uniqueness of their town say
"Lahore is Lahore". The traditional capital of Punjab for a thousand years, it had been the
cultural center of Northern India extending from Peshawar to New Delhi. This
preeminent position it holds in Pakistan as well. Lahore is the city of poets, artists and the
center of film industry. It has the largest number of educational institutions in the country
and some of the finest gardens in the continent.
The city as we know it today, reached its peak of glory during the Moghul rulers,
especially in the reign of Akbar the Great, who made it his capital. His son, Jehangir, is
buried in its outskirts and his mausoleum is one of the places frequented by tourists and
Lahorites alike. Close by is the mausoleum of the famous Moghul Empress, Nur Jehan,
who is known for introducing the rose plant and for initiating several cultural movements
in the Sub-Continent.
Akbar the Great held his Court In Lahore for 14 years from 1584 to 1598, and
built the Lahore Fort, as well as the city walls which had 12 gates. Some of these still
xxviii
survive. Jehangir and Shah Jehan, the builders of the Taj Mahal in Agra and the Shalamar
Gardens in Srinagar and Lahore, built palaces and tombs. The last great Moghul Emperor,
Aurangzeb (1838 - 1707) built Lahore's most famous monument, the great Badshahi
Mosque. At that time the river Ravi, which now lies a few miles away from Lahore,
touched the ramparts of the Fort and the Mosque. A stream still flaws there and is known
as the"Old River". The Sikhs ruled it in the 18th and 19th centuries, and though it was
their capital, they had a habit of damaging the Muslim monuments and took little interest
in gardens. It is said that they took enough marble from the Moghul monuments of
Lahore to build the Golden Temple at Amratsar twice over. Most of the gems that
decorated the palaces and the forts were also taken out.
British
British were responsible for the desecration of many of Lahore's tombs and monuments.
At one stage the Attorney General maintained an office at the Shah Chiragh Mosque, dak
bungalows were built for the weekends at Shalamar Gardens. Anarkali's tomb was used as
an office and later consecrated as a place of worship called St. Adrew's Church. It can
also be conjectured that Lahore was an industrial center in the Moghul period. The
famous guns which lie in front of the Central Museum and other places were molded in
the foundries of Lahore. Their perfection shows that the industry was quite advanced.
Within the walled city you may come across old Havelis or the spacious houses of the
rich, which give you an inkling of the style of the rich and notables in the Moghul reign.
Efforts are being made to preserve some of the buildings, along with their environments,
but a great deal needs to be done to maintain them for posterity.
The British during their reign (1849 -1947) compensated Lahore, by harmoniously
combining Mughal, Gothic and Victorian styles of architecture. Victorian heritage is only
next to Mughal monuments. The GPO and YMCA buildings built to commemorate the
golden jubilee of Queen Victoria - an event marked by the construction of clock towers
and monuments all over India. They built some important buildings, like the High Court.
the Government College, the Museums, the National College of Arts, Montgomery Hall,
Tollinton Market, the Punjab University (Old Campus) and the Provincial Assembly. At
one end of The Mall stands the University - perhaps the largest center of co-education in
Asia. It also has the prestigious and largest University of women (Lahore College Women
University) at Jail Road.
xxix
Moti Masjid or Pearl Mosque beyond the audience hall was for the exclusive use
of royal ladies carved from marble having the luster of pearls. Nearby "Naulakha", a
marble pavilion is inlaid with floral motifs and precious gems. Sheesh Mahal (Palace of
Mirrors) built in 1631 is the most richly decorated building inside Lahore Fort, it is
named for the elaborate mosaic of convex mirrors set in Stucco work tracery and the
gilded interior. Built by emperor Shah Jehan, for his empress and his harem, fretted
marble work screens hiding the occupants from view. Lahore offers some delightful
picnic spots. Tourists can find shady groves and green carpets at Shalamar Gardens,
Jehangir's Tomb and the Jinnah Gardens, the Jallo Park the newly built lqbal Park and
Changa Manga Forests. Boats can be hired at the river Ravi, or at Baradari, another of the
river-side pleasure-houses built by the Mughals and an ideal place for relaxation
Old Names of Lahore
Laha-war
Laha-noor
Loh-pur
Mahmood-pur
Labokla
Samandpal Nagiri
Lohar-pur
Geography
Lahore occupies a central position in the province and is generally called ' The Heart of
Pakistan'. Lahore is located near the river Ravi and the Indian border, at 31°34′N 74°20′E
(31.560000 North, 74.35000 East). It has a population of 6.5 million and the second
largest city in Pakistan and considered to be the 24th largest city of the world. The Data
Durbar of Hazrat Syed Abul Hassan Bin Usman Bin Ali Al-Hajweri is the most widely
visited and venerated place for the natives and represents pre-Mughal times’ architecture.
Mughal architecture can be seen in the Badshahi Mosque, Lahore Fort and Shalimar
Gardens. While the Lahore Museum and Lahore High Court’s buildings represent British
architecture.
xxx
Lahore covers a total land area of 404 km.² Lahore witnesses extremes climates
during the months of May, June, and July, while temperatures soar to 45–50 Celsius and
it is the hottest time of the year. The summer leads into the monsoon which brings heavy
rainfall throughout the city and province as well, while December, January and February
are the coldest months when temperatures drop to 0 −1 degree Celsius.
The Walled City of Lahore, also known as the Old City or Anderoon Shehr is the
section of Lahore which was fortified by a city wall during the Mughal era. Much of the
wall remains intact today. Akbari Gate,Bhati Gate, Delhi Gate, Kashmiri Gate, Lohari
Gate (also known as 'Lahori Gate', Masti Gate, Mochi Gate, Mori Gate, Roshnai Gate,
Shahalmi Gate, Shairanwala Gate (the lion’s gate), Taxali Gate and Yakki Gate.
The Lahorites are generally known in Pakistan as the Zinda Dilan Lahore owing
to their liveliness and flare for celebration. Here are some celebrations and festivals
celebrated in Lahore. Eid-ul-Fitr and Eid-ul-Adha, Basant, Independence Day, Lahore
marathon, Mela Chiraghan and National Horse and Cattle Show. Some of the main town
of Lahore includes: Ravi Town, Shalamar Town, Aziz Bhatti Town, Data Gunj Baksh
Town, Iqbal Town and Nishtar Town.
Demography
In 1998 the population of Lahore was recorded to be 5,063,000.of which 2,661,000 were
males and 2,402,000 were females. According to the 1998 census 86.2%, or 6,896,000 of
the population are Punjabis, 10.2% or 816,000 are Muhajirs. There are known to be more
than a million Pashtun in Lahore probably about 15% of the population. Finally, the
Seraikis at 0.4% number about 32,000.
xxxi
Culture
Marriages and Betrothal
Betrothal always precedes a marriage. The proposal is initiated by the near relatives of the
boy or girl and the women of both the sides take leading part in finalizing the proposal.
The wedding may take place at any time after the betrothal. Marriage between the same
sections of tribe or caste is customary. But inter-marriage between people of different
tribes and castes in cities and towns is becoming more frequent. The usual age of
marriage for boys is 20 to 30 years and that for girls is from 18 to 25 years. On the
wedding day the relatives and friends of the boy assemble and proceed in procession to
the girl's house. The marriage procession is generally headed by a musical band.
A marriage party is received by the relatives and friends of the parents of the girl.
The party is then entertained. Thereafter the Nikah ceremony is performed by the Nikah
registrar and a feast is given to the party. Alms are distributed to beggars and Village
Mueens are fed.
Then the party returns to the house of the bride groom with the bride but in a doli
or in a car. She stays for a couple of days and then returns to her father's house. The final
bringing home of the bride is called Muklawa. The dowry in the shape of ornaments,
clothing and furniture etc. is given to the girl from her parents.
Houses
Houses are a mixture of old and modern style of architecture. House are mostly built of
bricks and Concrete. Since independence many new residential colonies have been built
in and around Lahore city.
Food
The staple food of the city people is wheat, rice and pulses. Meat is frequently taken
specially in cities. Pulses and vegetables are quite common items of diet. The chief meals
are taken just before mid day and in the evening soon before sunset. But the city folk
generally have three meals, one early in the morning the other at mid day and the third
after sunset.
The ordinary food of villagers, roti made from flour of wheat, grams, barley,
maize, or jawar. In villages morning meal is usually taken with skimmed yogurt or curd
mixed with water known as Lassi. The special dishes for guests in rural areas consist of
halwa, sewaiyan, chicken, mutton, or sometimes beef. While in urban areas, Pulao, Zarda,
xxxii
Buriyani and qorma are served. Tea is almost universal popular in cities and regulary
taken at breakfast and in the evening. Villagers also take tea especially after meal.
Dress and Ornaments
In urban areas semi-western dress is worn by educated people while indigenous dress is
worn at home. The local dress consists of the kurta and shalwar. Achkan and sherwani are
worn on formal occasions. The women's cloths are generally more colorful. The
important items of the women clothing are shalwar kamiz and dopatta or chaddar to cover
their heads and upper parts of their body. Sari is only worn by women of the upper classes
in cities on formal occasion. Shoes are worn by those living in city while women folk
wear sandals and slippers, purdah is not generally observed by city women.
Births
Birth of a male child is considered an occasion of great rejoicing and is followed by the
distribution of sweets to friends and relatives who come to offer congratulations to the
parents. Soon after the birth of a child, the Mullah or an elderly male member of the
family recites Azan (call for Muslim prayer) into the ears of the child. Money is also
given to the Mueens (village artisans) on the birth of a male child at the time of
circumcision ceremony which is either performed soon after the birth or less commonly
after a few years. Aqiqa ceremony is performed both for a male and a female child. One
goat is sacrificed in case of a girl and two in case of a boy.
Deaths
On the death of a person, neighbourers, relatives and friends assemble at the house of the
deceased to console the bereaved family. Just after the death, the face of the deceased is
turned towards the Ka'aba and the dead-body is kept in a proper posture. The corpse is
bathed, and wrapped in a coffin of new cotton sheet. Comphor and rose water are
sprinkled over the body which is placed on a charpai and those present have a last look.
The dead body accompanied by the mourners is then carried to the grave-yard where
Namaz-e-Janaza is offered before it is lowered into the grave.
The death is mourned for three days, when Qul ceremony is performed. The
women-folk mourn with great vehemence. On the 40th day, called Chaliswan, meals are
served to friends, relatives and the poor. Christians also bury their dead. Immediately
after death, the local Church authorities are informed of the occurrence and bells start
tolling in the Church.
xxxiii
The service for the dead is held in the Church where verses from the Bible are
recited and a brief sermon delivered. The body is then taken to the graveyard and interred.
Hindues, Budhists and Jain burn their dead. Funeral processions often departs from the
house of the dead with musicians in the vanguard. The body is shifted to a nearby temple,
if available in the vicinity, where mantra-chanting priests lead the prayer. The body is
then taken to 'Ghaat' where it is placed under a pile of dried wood and burnt. Rich Hindus
still use Ghee and Sandal wood to burn their dead. After the body is completely burnt and
reduced to ashes the same are collected and thrown in river or tossed to the winds.
xxxiii
APPENDIX - III
xx xiv
APPENDIX - IV
The Kish Grid
This is a table of numbers named after the statistician who invented it. The number of
people in the household is discovered, and a random number is chosen to select a
particular person.
My research in Australia found that the Kish method can cause a high refusal rate:
elderly women, in particular, are often suspicious when the first question in a survey is
“How many people live in your household?”- Particularly if they alone. In developing
countries, where few old people live alone, this may not be a problem. Here’s an example
of a Kish Grid with instructions. This is based on 8 households per cluster, interviewing 1
person per household.
Instructions
1. Find out how many people living in the household are eligible to be interviewed.
Include people who sleep there, but are not there when you visit. Ignore children
aged under 15
2. The youngest (excluding children under 15) is number 1, the second youngest is
number 2 and so on.
3. The first household where you do an interview is household 1, the second is
household 2 , and so on, up to household 8 – the last household.
4. Look up the columns for the household number and the row for the number for the
number of eligible person. The number in cell where the column and row meet is
the person to interview. For example, if household 2 has 3 adults, interview the 2nd
youngest (shown in bold). If that person is not there when you call, arrange to
come back later.
x xxv
Eligible Household
Person 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2
4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
5 1 2 3 4 5 3 4 5
6 1 2 3 4 5 6 3 6
7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 4
8 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
10 or more 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
The reason for numbering the household members from the youngest upwards
(instead of the seemingly more obvious oldest downwards) is the younger person are
more difficult to find at home, so the above grid gives young people a slightly higher
chance of being interviewed.
Quota selection within a household
When selecting a respondent within a household, the most practical method is often a
type of quota sampling. Though quota sampling was criticised earlier in this chapter, most
of its problems do not apply when selecting a member of a household.
A common approach is to interview a woman in half of all respondents and a man
in the other half- in most parts of the world, where the sex balance is close to 50/50.
To ensure a good balance of old and young people, age-based quotas can also be
applied. One of the simplest quota systems is to ask to interview the oldest person in the
household (in half the households) and the youngest person (in the other half of house
holds).
Household quotas can be based on other factors apart from sex or age group. It
can be useful in radio and television surveys to have separate quotas for the people who
stay home most of the time.
xxxvi
APPENDIX-V
Addresses and Telephone No’s of Nazmeen UC s and Distric Members Zila Council,
Lahore
Ravi Town
S No Name of
UC
Name of
Nazim
Address UC No Cell Residence
01 Kot
Begam
Khalid
Mehmood S/o
Shaukat Ali
H No245 St
No7Begam Kot
Shahdara
7915402 0333-
4358183
7929659
02 Kott
Mohibbu
M.Afzal S/o
Abdul Majeed
Jinnah Park Kot
Shahab Ud Din
Shahdara
7932210
7933396
0300-
9488229
03 Aziz
Colony
Naeem Ahmed
S/o Rasheed
Baig
H-No-80 Lajpat
Nagar Shahdra
Lahore
7928217
7932864
0333-
4274647
04 Faisal
Park
Raheem
Gulshad S/o
Ahmad Khan
Islam Pura
Shahdara
7910382 0320-
4613837
05 Qaiser
Town
M.Iqbal Khan
S/o Ghulam
Rasool
H No-8 Adnan
St, Ghazi Park
Shahdara
7914489
7932608
7911706
0333-
4274318
06 Dhair Ch. Iftikhar
Yousaf S/o Haji
M.Yousaf
Shahdara Town
Lahore
7228480
7918480
0300-
4260108
7228369
5837240
07 Shahdra Sajjad S/o Shah
din
Maqbara Morr
Shahdara Town
7918480
7228480
0300-
8454637
08 Jia Musa Hamid Hussain
Khan S/o
Ahmad Hussain
Khan
Bara Dari Road
Shahdara
7913242 0333-
4317211
7921339
09 Qila
lachman
Singh
Sohail
Mehmood
Malik S/o
Muhammad
Mehmood
Malik
155-Ravi
Park,Ravi Road
Lahore
7707799 0300-
4249516
7723444
10 Fruit
Mandi
Al-haaj
Mukhtar
Ahmad Butt S/o
Haji Abdul
Rehman Butt
H No-01, A St
No 17 Nabi Park
Ahmed Ali Road
Lahoe
7706414
0300-
4307570
7727319
7700702
11 Siddique
Pura
Haji M.Ilyas
Usman S/o Haji
M.Sadique
Siddique Pura
Badami Bagh
6260073
7601585
0300-
841940
12 Bangali
Bagh
M.Mushtaq
Mughal S/o
Abdul Ghani
H-02,St-21 Data
Nagar
BadamiBagh
Lahore
7669244
7601585
0303-
6404658
13 Saddiqia M.Nawaz S/o Khokhar Pind 7287170 0300- Shop
xxxvii
Colony M.Yaqoob P.O.Chah Miran
Lahore
6275931
42041554 7286835,
6277664,
14 Bhamma
n
Ch. Ghulam
Nabi S/o Haji
M. Siddique
149 Azam St,
Yasrab Colony
Bhagat Pura
7609554
0333-
4212611
15 Baghat
Pura
Bashir Ahmed
Butt S/o Allah
din Butt
H No-63,St No -
3 ShadBagh
6261747
7220318
16 Gujjar
Pura
M. Asghar S/o
M.Ashiq
M Din Park Kot
Khawaja
Saeed Lahore
6833360
6856008
0333-
4313946
17 Rehmet
Pura
Mahboob
Arshad S/o
M.Arshad
121- A, Sher
Shah Road,
Jahangir Park,
BaghbanPura
Lahore
6862973
18 Begum
Pura
Haji M.Ahmed
S/o M.Anwar
H. No 33,
Ahmed Market
Gujjar Pura
Goray Shah
Lahore
6843831 0333-
4243603
19 Chah
Miran
Asif Iqbal S/o
Abdul Hameed
H. No. 31 A, St-
09,Makhan Pura
Lahore
7285978 0333-
4213252
20 Bilal
Park
M.Asghar Khan
S/o Inayat Khan
H. No. 17, Kot
Khawaja Saeed
Lahore
0300-
4512512
6844111
21 Makhan
Pura
Mian M.
Attique S/o
Mian M.Rafiq
H No-17,St No-
19, Haji Shah
Mohallah
Chahmirah
Lahore
6263815
0300-
9441385
7606178
22 Kot
Khawaja
Saeed
6860914
23 Shad
bagh
M. Bilal S/o
Ch.M.Rafi
22 Fazal Park,
No 1 Shadbagh
Lahore
7280840
6262866
24 Wassan
Pura
Mian Abdul
Ghafoor S/o Dil
Muhammad
H No-05,St No-
48, Kashmiri
Mohallah Wasan
pura Lahore
7280451
25 Faiz
Bagh
M. Asghar butt
S/o M. Ashfaq
Butt
38 A Akram
Road Near P.S
Misri Shah
Kahore
7612991
7601708
0320-
4423556
5852976
26 Farooq
Gung
M. Shahid
Hussain S/o Ch.
M. Hussain
H No-15, St No-
21, Shamsabad
Misri Shah
Lahore
7653438
7282882
0333-
4228847
27 Androon
Dehli
Gate
M. Tariq S/o M.
Siddique
H No-24,
Koocha Loharan
Androon Mochi
Gate, Lahore
7671659
7662832-
33
7414991
xxxviii
28 Rang
Mehal
Shahid Bilal
S/o Akhtar Ali
Sheikh
3186 D Koocha
Akalian
Mohallah Molin
Androon Lohari
Gate, Lahore
7673623 0300-
94663667
7639830
29 Androon
Bhatti
Gate
Mian M.
Shahzad S/o
Main M. Zafar
H No-
1102,Koocha
Shah Anayat
Androon Bhatti
Gate Lahore
7634036
7663562
7231466
0300-
4824915
30 Androon
Taxali
Gate
Shahid
Maqsood Butt
7632014
7656835
0333-
4249955
Shalimar Town
S No Name of
UC
Name of
Nazim
Address UC No Cell Residenc
e
31 Railway
colony
Tahir Aslam
S/o Abdul
Islam
H # 02, 45-G.T
Road Wireless
Colony
6823313
6816017
0300-
4215909-
94
-
32 Daras
Barey
Mian
Tasneem Shafi
S/o M.Shafi
171-Met-II
Mughalpura
6821818
6852381
0300-
8450682
33 Crown
Park
Shafqat-Un-
Nisa W/o
Ikhlaq Ahmed
315-G.T Raod
Near Girls
College Stop
Bahghbanpura
6547019
6542369
6810272
6814342
0300-
8441633
Off:
6870272
34 Madhu
Lal
Husain
Ch. Jabbar S/o
Abdul Qadar
H #08,St-
81,Muhallah Kala
Burj Baghbanpura
6847575 0300-
9425875
6814991
35 Muhamm
ad Colony
M. Waseem
S/o Gulam
Yaseen
Karma Wala
Street Ghosia
Colony College
Road,
Baghbanpura
6820239 0300-
9469953
6833697
36 Baghban
pura
Asif Iftikhar
S/o Iftikhir
Ahmed
Shahbaz Park
Madina Colony
Baghbanpura
0300-
4115172
6862130
37 Muslimab
ad
Syed Zahid
Ali Shah S/o
Asad Ali Shah
Sultan Mehmood
Road Shalimar
Town Lahore
6861238 0333-
4313526
6548680
38 Sultan
MEhmoo
d
Balqees
Begam
St-15 Sultan
Mehmood Road
Shalimar Town
Lahore
6554407 0300-
4234705
39 Shadipura Shahid S/o
Imtiaz Khaliq
Bund Road Shadi
Pura Lahore
6545424
6547102
0300-
8455231
40 Salamat
Pura
Haji Gulam
Mustafa S/o
Haji Abdul
Raheem
Momanpura G.T
Road Lahore
6544447
6854575
6545703
0300-
9452577
41 Harbans M .Iftkhar S/o Shumali Abadi 6558238 0333-
xxxix
Pura Haji M.
Saddique
Harbans Pura
Lahore
6540282 4257199
42 Darogha
Wala
Shahid
Mehmood S/o
Mehmood-Ul-
Hassan
H # 21,St#12,
Bilal Colony
Darogha wala
0300-
8444485
6542044
43 Rashid
Pura
M.Nadeem
S/o Gahragh
Din
S .A Rehman
Nishtar Town
Darogha Wala
6544952
6541293
-5
0333-
4216834
44 Fateh
Garh
Mian Fayyaz
Ahmed S/o
Mian Ghulam
Nabi
H # 12, St #01,
Near Takia
Mughal Pura
6549136
6826790
45 Nabi Pura Khalid Aziz
S/o Aziz Ur
Rehman
H # 03, St # 01/A,
Madina Colony
Saddique –EAkbar
Road Lal
Pul Mughal Pura
6555138
6553182
0333-
4221840
0300-
4130199
46 Angoori
Bagh
M. Ijaz Rana
S/o Rana M.
Tufail
New Shahid Park
Behind Pakistan
Mint Kotli Peer
Abdul Rehman
Lahore
6850111
6547602
0300-
9454673
47 Mujahid
Abad
M.Nawaz S/o
Salah-Ud-Din
H # 12, St # 19
Ghosia Colony
Sahoo Wari
Lahore
6817915
0300-
9424938
48 Mughal
Pura
Mushtaq
Ahmed
Khokhar S/O
M . Sharif
Khokhar
H # 513, St # 40,
Mujahid Abad
Mughal Pura
0320-
4209109
49 Lakho
Dher
Ch. Manzoor
Husain S/o
Haji M.
Hussain
Warra Gujran
Lahore
6558681
6540119
0300-
4105594
50 Bhaseen Manzoor
Ahmed S/o
Inayat Ali
Awan
Dewan Wala Bata
Pur
6581655
6583627
0333-
4239437
6581411
0300-
4244152
51 Dogria
Kalan
Gulam Habib
S/o Shah
Muhammad
Village Attoka
Awan
6582546
5874862
0333-
4251322
Off:6580
760
52 Manawan Ch. M. Sarfaz
S/o Ch. Altaf
Muhammad
Manawan Batta
Pur Lahore
6582595
0300-
9462467
53 Minhala Tahir Majeed
S/o Abdul
Majeed
Noor Pur Jallo
Pind Lahore
6582326
6580653
0300-
8123781
xl
Azia Bhatti Town
S No Name of
UC
Name of Nazim Address UC No Cell Residenc
e
54 Mian Meer Munir Aftab S/o
Khlik
Muhammad
H # 5-A, St #
06,
Mustafaabad
Lahore
6827148 0333-
4238428
55 Mustafa
Abad
Arif Sarwar S/o
Gulam Sarwar
H # 750-A, St #
22, Gulistan
Colony Lahore
6833155 0333-
4253154
56 Ghazi Abad Naeem Ullah
Khan S/o M.
Ibrahim
Sarial Mian Esa
Main Road
Ghazzi Abad
Lahore
6834280 0333-
4239354
57 Taj Bagh Shaukat Ali S/o
Haji Imam Din
St # 06,
Mohallah Taj
Pura Lahore
6863011
6552772
0333-
4254477
58 Taj Pura Ch. M Afzal S/o
Ch. M. Sharif
Ittehad Colony
Ghazi Abad Taj
Pura Road
Lahore
0300-
4212845
59 Al Faisal
Town
Ch. Talib
Hussain Chohan
Al-Faisal Town
Bahar Road
Lahore
6684866 0300-
4359634
60 Gulgasht
Colony
Zulfiqar Ali
Manj S/o Alam
Khan
Main Road
Chungi Gujar
Pura Lahore
6630719 0300-
9468892
6675772
6667137
61 Bhangali Malik M.Saeed
S/o. Badar Din
Dera PO
Herbans Pura
Tehsill Cantt
Lahore
6560619
6550279
6560895
62 Barki Arif Ali S/o
Sardar Ali
Mauiza Lidhar
Badian Tehsil
Cantt, Lahore
6561262 0300
8434462
5722972
63 Kamahaan Nasir Mehmood
S/o Haji Juma
Khan
Dera Ch.
Akhtar ali
Shaheed Mauza
Kmahan Tehsil
Cantt
0333-
4237081
5800379
64 Hair Muhammad
Afzal S/o Malik
Talib Hussain
Hair Khas
Badian Road
Cantt
5600344
65 Hadiara Mian Mahboob
Alam S/o Mian
Aziz Din
Mohallah
Araiyan
Hadiara Tehsil
Cantt
6561265
6560386
6360350
6560368
0333-
4265322
0300-
9412154
9442570
66 Dhalloki Arshad Hussain
S/o
Muhammmad
Ali
Mauza Saraich
Tehsil Cantt
Lahore
7353677 0300-
9499453
xli
Data Gunj Buksh Town
S No Name of
UC
Name of Nazim Address UC No Cell Residenc
e
67 Kasur
Pura
Abdul Waheed
Tariq S/o Mian
Abdul Rasheed
T # 02, Infront
of Mali Pura
Stop, Lahore
7709665 0300-
4207160
7703492
68 Ameen
Park
Zufiqar
Mehmood S/o
Ghulam Rasool
H # 151, Block
# 02, Karim
Park Ravi
Road Lahore
7933378
69 Kareem
Park
M. Nawaz S/o M.
Mali
Shafiq Abad
Bund Road
Lahore
7215645 0333-
4215076
7708445
Off-
7709585
70 Gunj
Kalan
Mian Majid
Hussain S/o Mian
Muzaffar
Hussain
H # 24, St #
18, Ibrahim
Road Islam
Gunj Lahore
7229450
7116446
0300-
9423781
71 Bilal
Gunj
Mazher Iqbal
Bhalli S/o Haji
M. Tufail Butt
H # 01, St #
08, Sheesh
Mehal Road
Lahore
7111965
7225375
7225373
72 Anarkali Waheed Alam
khan S/O
M.Sharif
H # 1 Anarkali
Lahore
7210289
7231698
0320-
4826839
73 Gawalm
andi
Arjuman
Mehmood S/o
Abdul Waheed
H.No. 06, St.
No. 99, Nisbat
Road, Lahore
7238553
7212196
0300-
9456042
74 Sarai
Sultan
Usman Saleem
S/o Fazal Din
21 Ahata Mian
Sultan Landa
Bazar Lahore
7671569
7631992
0300-
9448256
75 Bibi Pak
Daman
Fayyaz Virkk S/o
Abdul Aziz Virk
3 –D ,Allama
Iqbal Road,
Lahore
6369090
6313542
0300-
7571744
0303-
6142630
76 Garhi
Shahu
Zulfiqar Ali
Advocate S/o M.
Ashfaq Raza
H # 7, St # 42,
Ghari Shahu
Lahore
6311949
6367588
0300-
9441803
77 Qila
gujjar
singh
Salah-ud-Din S/o
Miraj Din
H # 68 Digna
singh Building,
Lahore
6311949
7234252
6360078
0300-
9472374
0300-
8450107
78 Race
course
Abdul Rahman
S/o Abdullah
4- Din pur
G.O.R – 1,
Lahore
7721782
7720204
0333-
4364919
6317000
6307000
79 Mozzan
g
Haji Mian
M.Tariq S/o
Mian Feroze Din
H # 120
Tempal Road,
Lahore
6307511
6367721
6313153
0300-
8404070
80 Jinnah
Hall
M. Ilyas S/o Haji
M. Aslam Khan
H # 07, St #
44, Sant
Nagar, Lahore
7320942
0300-
8430631
R-
7244605
O-
7232862
81 Riwaz
Garden
Khalique Ahmad
Buttt S/o Sufi
H #10, St # 25,
Muslim Park
7113099
7227165
0300-
8450011
xlii
Atiq Ahmad Raj Garh,
Lahore
7231242
82 Islam
Pura
Hafiz Naseem
Ahmed chishti
s/o M. Amin
chishti
66 Azmat
Munzil Nation
Town Sanda
Road
7214654
7222535
7465344
0300-
9483538
83 Chohan
Park
Shoukat Ali S/o
Barkat Ali
62-A, Jalal
Colony Sanda
Khurd, Lahore
7114307
7240293
0333-
4214027
84 Abu
Bakar
Siddique
Colony
Habib Ullah
Bhatti S/o Haji
Muhammad
Mohallah
Puthroo Bund
Road, Lahore
7469735
7413332
0300-
8404549
85 Sanda
Kalan
Abdul Waheed
Qureshi S/o M.
Zaman Qureshi
Al-Sultan
Building Afzal
Road Sanda,
Lahore
7234342
7323441
0333-
4247102
7470122
86 Sanda
Khurd
Mian Maqsood
Ahmed S/o Mian
M. Sharif
31-D-1,
Gulshan Ravi,
Lahore
7413466
87 Sham
Nagar
Mian Waheed
S/o Haji M. Latif
H # 25, St #
03, Sanda
Bhatian Wala
Bund Road
7419466
7467940
0333-
4256078
88 Gulgasht
Colony
Saeed Ahmed
Khan S/o Safdar
Khan
H # 20, St #
02, Naunarian
Lahore
7414733
7463764
0300-
9476564
89 Gulshane-
Ravi
Mian Haris
Saleem S/o Mian
M. Saleem
Mian Colony
Lahore
7470567
7464301
0300-
9473466
90 Babu
Sabu
Javaid Hussain
S/o Hajj M.
Sarwar
Babu Sabu
LHR
7470567
7464940
0333-
4228415
91 Rizwan
Park
CH. Mubrik Ali
S/o Ch. Barkat
Ali
6-8, Mian Al-
Khayyam
Road, Firdos
Mill Bund
Road, Lahore
7470569
7465304
0333-
4246471
7847445
92 Sodi
Wal
M. Shoaib Khan
S/o Amir Khan
Niazi
168- Multan
Road Lhr
7410892
7464011
7400314
7554529
93 Bahawal
Pur
House
Ch. M. Mumtaz
Sarwar S/o Ch.
M. Sarwar
H # 17,
Muhallah
Shabli Street
Islamia park,
Lahore
0300-
8474231
0300-
4419933
Off-
7596803
94 Shadma
n
Hafiz Asad
Ubaid S/o
Maulana M.
Ubaid Ullah
H # 01, Jamia
Ashrafia Feroz
Pur Road
7551111
7577972
0300-
9443242
95 Al-
Hamra
Waheed Akhtar
S/o Abdul
Majeed
H # 01, St #
25, Canal Park
Gulberg II
5871295
0300-
4130465
xliii
96 Zaman
Park
Tahir Altaf S/o
M. Altaf
910-Wazir Ali
Road Basti
Saiden Shah
5752500 0300-
4267296
5756231
97 Gulberg Ch. Abdul
Gafoor S/o Haji
Noor Muhammed
Ghouse-e-
Azam Colony
114- Gulgerg
III
5714797
5760470
0300-
8410222
98 Makkah
Colony
Haji M. Sarwar
S/o CH. M.
Anwar Umar
H # 90-D, St #
06, Makkah
Colony
Gulberg III,
Lahore
5761870
5870728
0300-
9474935
99 Naseer
Abad
M. Yousuf
Rafique S/o Ch.
M. Rafique Gill
196, M Block,
St # 211,
Gulberg III
0300-
8403625
5853127
Off-
9230868
xliv
Iqbal Town
S No Name of
UC
Name of
Nazim
Address UC No Cell Residence
100 Ichhra Shahid Hafiz
S/o Ch. M.
Hafiz
H # 01, St # 22
Noor Muhallah
Ichra
7598097
7120013
7587991
101 New
Samana
bad
M. Ashfaq S/o
Ch. M. Haji
Rafiq
H # 1/C, St #
139, Ittehad
colony Faisal
Street Ichra
7534144
7582017
7564279
0333-
4226642
102 Shah
Kamal
Shahid Latif
S/o Abdul Latif
24 Union Park
Samanabad,
Lahore
7554335
0300-
8482194
7556050
103 Pakki
Thathi
Jaffar Ali S/o
M. Ibhraim
CH.
H # 07, Chanib
St # 13 Pakki
Thathi, Lahore
7539508 7575683
104 Kashmir
Block
Rana Azher
Abbas S/o Ch.
Abdul Raheem
129- Jahanzeb
Block Allama
Iqbal Town,
Lahore
7831015
7833565
0300-
8407000
105 Nawan
Kot
Irfan Maqbool
Baig S/o
Maqbool Baig
Tariq Street Al-
Mumtaz Road
Saman abad
7564567
7598164
0300-
9441291
106 Saman
Abad
Mian M. Afzal
Iqbal S/o Mian
M. Iqbal
11-S, Feteh Sher
Road, Mozang
7536106
9211507
0300-
9441291
107 Rehman
Pura
Javid Iqbal
Khan S/o
M.Afzal
H # 17, St #
10,Tariq abad
near rehman
pura
7222542
7232542
0300-
9400467
108 Gulshan
-e-iqbal
Syed Mooen
Arif S/o Syed
M. Arif
Clifton colony
near wahdat
colony
0333-
429192
7570922
109 Sikandar
Block
Iftkhar Ahmed
S/o M. Yousuf
124- Mehran
Block Allama
iqbal Town
5423712
7841880
0333-
4231730
110 Awan
Town
Ch. M. Taqi
S/o M. Rafiq
B-175 Madeena
Block Awan
Town
7841384 0333-
4233186
7842804
111 Said Pur M. Javaid
Lambardar S/o
M. Latif
Muhallah Aqil
Pura Multan
Road
7570771 0300-
4495106
112 Sabza
Zar
M. Irshad
Shahid Hassan
Muhammad
H # 128-B,
Block G Liaqat
Chock sabza Zar
scheme
7445491
5868854
113 Dholan
wal
Shahzad Aslam
S/o Mian
Muhammad
Aslam
H # 141, Block-
B,Sabzazar
Scheme , Multan
Road
7538194
7820273
000-
8442990
114 Bakkar
Mandi
Zia Ahmed
Nagira S/o
Hakeem
Jhugian Nagra
Bund Road,
Lahore
7537229
7567966
7562447
0320-
4820954
xlv
AliNagira
115 Muslim
Town
Naveed Sadiq
Khan S/o M.
Sadiq Khan
16-sadiq
St,MuslinTown,
Lahore
5865139
111-111-
567
0303-
7587590
116 Jouhar
Town
Sajjad Rubbani
S/o Gulam
Rubbani
645, F-II Jouhar
Town
7237288
7238696
0300-
8486050
117 Hanjarw
al
Zahoor ahmad
S/o M. Saddiq
H # 12Gulshan
Park Multan
Road, Lahore
5433591
0300-
8434791
7444902
118 Niaz
Baig
Zulfiqar Ali
Bara S/o
Farmaish Ali
Hanjarwal 5422683 0333-
42516443
5420239
119 Shah
Pur
M. Manawar
Khan S/o Haji
Naik
Muhammad
Khan Pur, Shah
Pur
7511590 0300-
8476436
120 Ali Raza
Abad
Azhar
Khurshid S/o
Khurshid
Ahmad
Shadiwal
Mahaja
5321452
5175455
0333-
4243312
121 Chohang Sarfaraz
HussainS/o
Atta
Muhammed
Mohallah Punj
Gran Chohng
7510636
0333-
4312587
122 Maraka Bukhtiar
Ahmad S/o
Rana Bashir
Ahmad
Maraka Quarter,
Lahore
7541105
7540516
0333-
4304382
123 Sham
Ke
Bhattian
Ijaz Mehmood
Bhatti S/o Haji
m. Saddique
Sham Ke
Bhattian
04951-
380338
0333-
4212315
04951-
380154
124 Sultan
Kay
Javed Umar
S/o Sardar
Khalid Umar
Mauza Sultanke,
Lahore
7860119
5850797
5882260
7860123
0300-
8452494
125 Manga Aqil Umar S/o
Sardar Khalid
Umar
Basti
Khalidabad
Multan Road,
Lahore
0303-
6409008
xlvi
Nishter Town
S
No
Name
of UC
Name of Nazim Address UC No Cell Residence
126 Garde
n
Town
Shahid Aslam S/o
M. Aslam
106-L Model
Town
Extention
5162168
7311553
0303-
7582002
127 Model
Town
Col (R) Tahir
Hussain Karadr
s/O Nusrat Kardar
3-H Model
Town Lahore
5854575
5880468
0300-
8404484
128 Fasial
Town
Dr . Ch. Amjad
Mustafa S/o Ch.
M Akram
Akram
Complex Link
Road Model
Town
5169465 0300-
9455550
5887302
129 Liaqat
Abad
Haji Sutan
Ahmad Awan s/o
G- 712 Model
Town
5881355
5176207
0300-
8470200
130 Kot
Kakh
Pat
New
Abadi
Abdul Gahfoor
S/o Abdul Ghani
124, Nadeem
Park,
Karmawala
Bazar KOt
Lakhpat
5881355
5856196
0300-
9459069
131 Pindi
Raj
Poota
n
Dr. M. Riaz S/o
Haji M. Sadiq
`Pindi
Rajputan,
Lahore
0345-
4214908
5834092
132 Town
Ship
M. Aslam Pervaiz
S/o Shamas Din
89-16-B 1,
Town Ship
5156132
0300-
9440437
133 Town
Ship
Sector
A-I, A
II
Syed Asghar Ali
Shah S/o Syed
Khursheed
Kothi # 318,
Sector A I
Town Ship
5110330
5112331
5150135
0303-
6406518
134 Bosta
n
Colon
y
Mian Abdul
Razzaque S/o Lal
Din
Awami Colony,
H # 03,
437/LDA St #
04, Behind
General
Hospital
5822536 0300-
8406783
135 Ismael
Nagar
Barkat Ali Asif
S/o Ch. Elim Din
H # 24,
Muhallah
Zubair Colony
Behind General
Hospital
5822536 0300-
8406783
136 Sitara
Colon
y
M. Babar Awan
S/o Malikm. Bota
Awan
Pind Bandian
Wala Chungi
Amer Sidhu,
Lahore
5823961
5813652
0333-
4220968
137 Farid
Colon
y
Gulam Hussain
Bhatti S/o Gulam
M. Bhatti
`Bhatti Colony
Chungi Amer
Sidhu
5823961
5813652
0300-
9463607
138 Ker
Kalan
M. Sajad Khan
S/o Mansab Khan
510-B I,/B I,
Town Ship,
Lahore
`512299 0300-
4102589
139 Green M. Tariq Ch. S/o H # 227, Block 5154407 0300- 5141516
xlvii
Town Ch. Abdul Sattar -2,Sector C I,
Town Ship
Off-
5111227
4218669
140 Mareu
m
Colon
y
Gulsher Kahan
S/o Jalal Khan
327-111-D-
11,Green Town
5111140
5122808
0300-
6452007
141 Atari
Sarob
a
Nadenm Liaqat
S/o Liaqat Ali
Awan Market
17 K.M. Ferroz
Pur Road
5821133 0300-
9466286
142 Dilo
Ford
Kalan
Mian Maqsood
Alam S/o Haji
Hussain Din
Mauza Dullu
Kaln Khured
PO Islam
Nagar, Lahore
5270175 0300-
8462377
143 Chand
roy
Ch. Riasat Ali
Sindhu
250-A Gowala
Colony, Rukh
sadaye, Lahore
5271677
0300-
4297655
144 Halo
Ke
M. Ramzan S/o
Ahmad Din
Chamru
Pur
5320198
5321521
0333-
4302064
145 Gajo
mata
Naeem Asroo S/o
Asroo Khan
Gajjomata
Ferooz Pur
Road
5274205 0300-
9430223
146 Khana
Noo
M. Ramzan S/o
Taj Din
Ward #03,
Kabna Nau
5273146
5272061
0300-
9469131
147 Jia
Baga
M. Younas s/o
Haji M. Sardar
Village Rai 5330347
0333-
4276140
148 Paji Jamail Asghar
Bhatti S/o M.
Bashir Bhatti
Ladheykey,
Newain
04951-
374024
04951-
391238
149 Raiwi
nd
Rana Sharafit Ali
S/o Rana Sher M.
Zaildar St,
Mandi Raiwind
04951-
392700
0300-
8490149
0333-
4252644
150 Pando
Ke
Subhan Khan S/o
Chand Khan
Village
Budhukey P.O
Khana Nau,
Lahore
5271313
xl viii
APPENDIX-VI
Questionnaire Used by the Interviewer
(Screener)
A) Do you have Television at your home? Yes____ No____
If NOT then terminate the interview.
B) If YES. Do you have cable TV connection at home? Yes____ No____
If NOT then terminate the interview.
C) If YES. Do you have woman aged 18- 40 years at your home? Yes____ No____
If NOT, then terminate the interview.
If YES, get answers of the following questions from the targeted women:
1. Since when do you have cable connection at home?
i) 2 years
ii) 3 years
iii) 4 years
iv) More than 4 years
If less than 2 years then terminate the interview.
2. How many hours daily you watch cable television?
i) 1 to 2 hours
ii) More than 2 hours but less than 4 hours
iii) 4 or more than 4 hours
3. Why do you watch cable television?
Start from the most important reason and finish with the least important reason.
i) _______________
ii) _______________
iii) _______________
iv) _______________
4. Which cable television channels do you usually watch?
Start from your most preferred ones.
i) _______________
ii) _______________
iii) _______________
iv) _______________
xlix
5. Which cable television programs do you usually watch?
Start from your most preferred ones.
i) _______________
ii) _______________
iii) _______________
iv) _______________
6. You like to watch cable television
i) Alone
ii) Along with someone
7. Who has the remote when all your family watches cable television together?
i) Children
ii) Men
iii) Yourself
iv) Elders
v) Youngsters
8. What time do you like to watch cable television?
i) From morning till 2 P.M.
ii) From 2 P.M. to 7 P.M.
iii) After 7 P.M.
9. Is it considered inappropriate for women of your home to watch any particular
CTV programme at any particular time?
i) Yes
ii) Don’t Know
iii) No
9-A. If ‘YES’, then which programme?
i) _______________
ii) _______________
iii) _______________
iv) _______________
9-B. For what reasons?
i) _______________
ii) _______________
iii) _______________
iv) _______________
l
9-C. If ‘YES’, then at what time?
i) _________________
ii)_________________
iii)_________________
iv)_________________
9-D. For what reasons?
i) _________________
ii)_________________
iii)_________________
iv)_________________
9-E. If ‘No’, then why?
i) _________________
ii)_________________
iii)_________________
iv)_________________
10. Is it considered inappropriate for men of your home to watch any particular CTV
programme at any particular time?
i) Yes
ii) Don’t Know
iii) No
10-A. If ‘YES’, then which programs?
i) _________________
ii)_________________
iii)_________________
iv)_________________
10-B. For what reasons?
i) _________________
ii)_________________
iii)_________________
iv)_________________
10-C. If ‘YES’, then at what time?
i) _________________
ii)_________________
iii)_________________
li
iv)_________________
10-D. For what reasons?
i) _________________
ii)_________________
iii)_________________
iv)_________________
10-E. If ‘No’, then why?
i) _________________
ii)_________________
iii)_________________
iv)_________________
11. Is it considered inappropriate for boys of your home to watch any particular CTV
programme at any particular time?
iv) Yes
v) Don’t Know
vi) No
11-A. If ‘YES’, then which programs?
i) _________________
ii)_________________
iii)_________________
iv)_________________
11-B. For what reasons?
i) _________________
ii)_________________
iii)_________________
iv)_________________
11-C. If ‘YES’, then at what time?
i) _________________
ii)_________________
iii)_________________
iv)_________________
11-D. For what reasons?
i) _________________
ii)_________________
lii
iii)_________________
iv)_________________
11-E. If ‘No’, then why?
i) _________________
ii)_________________
iii)_________________
iv)_________________
12. Do women / girls have right to watch cable television in your home?
a. More than men
b. Equal to men
c. Less than men
d. Not at all
13. What do you like to do for entertainment in your free time?
e. ______________
f. ______________
g. ______________
h. ______________
Activities
13. Cable television causes hurdles in my domestic and personal activities.
i) Agree
ii) Undecided
iii) Disagree
14-A. If ‘YES’, then which activities?
i) ______________
ii) ______________
iii)______________
iv) ______________
Interaction
14. Interaction with my relatives is decreasing these days.
i) Agree
ii) Undecided
iii) Disagree
liii
15-A. Interaction with my neighbors is decreasing these days.
i) Agree
ii) Undecided
iii) Disagree
15-B. Interaction with my friends is decreasing these days.
i) Agree
ii) Undecided
iii) Disagree
15-C. I don’t like to visit anyone at my time of watching cable television.
i) Agree
ii) Undecided
iii) Disagree
15-D. I don’t like anyone visiting us at the time of my watching cable television.
i) Agree
ii) Undecided
iii) Disagree
15-E. I don’t like to be disturbed by my family while watching cable television.
i) Agree
ii) Undecided
iii) Disagree
15-F. My outing with family is decreasing these days.
i) Agree
ii) Undecided
iii) Disagree
Note: Only Married Woman should fill this part:
15-G. The time I spend with my husband is decreasing these days.
i) Agree
ii) Undecided
iii) Disagree
Note: Only mothers should response to this part:
15-H. The time I spend with my children is decreasing these days.
i) Agree
ii) Undecided
liv
iii) Disagree
Appearance and Style
16. These days, I like to be formally dressed up at all times.
i) Agree
ii) Undecided
iii) Disagree
16-A. I consider television characters as my role models
i) Agree
ii) Undecided
iii) Disagree
16-B. I like to formally dressed up like different characters of CTV
i) Agree
ii) Undecided
iii) Disagree
16-C. I like to wear jewelry resembling jewelry worn by different characters of CTV.
i) Agree
ii) Undecided
iii) Disagree
16-D. I like to talk in style resembling characters of cable television.
i) Agree
ii) Undecided
iii) Disagree
16-E. I like to track resemblances between television characters and myself.
i) Agree
ii) Undecided
iii) Disagree
Cultural Practices
Culture - Food Habits
17. There is an evident inclusion / addition of western dishes in our everyday
food.
i) Agree
ii) Undecided
iii) Disagree
lv
17-1-A. There is an evident inclusion / addition of Indian dishes in our everyday food.
i) Agree
ii) Undecided
iii) Disagree
17-1-B. Television is the best source for learning new food recipes.
i) Agree
ii) Undecided
iii) Disagree
17-1-C. My family prefers to dine in front of television.
i) Agree
ii) Undecided
iii) Disagree
17-1-D. Television programs are under discussion instead of family topics at the dinning
table.
i) Agree
ii) Undecided
ii) Disagree
Culture - Dress
17-1. I prefer to wear western dress (jeans, shirts) casually.
i) Agree
ii) Undecided
iii) Disagree
17-2-A . I prefer to wear Indian dress (Sarree) casually.
i) Agree
ii) Undecided
iii) Disagree
17-2-B. I consider cable television to be the best source of information for new designs
and fashion trends.
i) Agree
ii) Undecided
iii) Disagree
17-2-C. I like to wear Indian dress formally.
lvi
i) Agree
ii) Undecided
iii) Disagree
17-2-D. I prefer to wear western dress formally.
i) Agree
ii) Undecided
iii) Disagree
Culture - Language
17-2. I like to speak foreign languages.
i) Agree
ii) Undecided
iii) Disagree
17-3-A. I like to speak English words during my conversation with others, usually.
i) Agree
ii) Undecided
iii) Disagree
17-3-B. I like to speak Hindi words during my conversation with other, usually.
i) Agree
ii) Undecided
iii) Disagree
17-3-C. Cable television is the best source to learn other languages.
i) Agree
ii) Undecided
iii) Disagree
17-3-D. I have learned English words evidently from cable television.
i) Agree
ii) Undecided
iii) Disagree
17-3-E. I have learned Hindi words evidently from cable television.
i) Agree
ii) Undecided
iii) Disagree
lvii
Culture - Traditions and Celebrations
17-4- At the event of Marriage the tendency to perform Indian rituals in addition to
Pakistan traditions, is increasing.
i) Agree
ii) Undecided
iii) Disagree
17-4-A. Our family has started celebrating “Raakhi”.
i) Agree
ii) Undecided
iii) Disagree
17-4-B. Our family has started celebrating “Holli”.
i) Agree
ii) Undecided
iii) Disagree
17-4-C. Our family has started celebrating “Karwa Chodh”.
i) Agree
ii) Undecided
iii) Disagree
17-4-D. Our family has started celebrating “Valentine’s Day”.
i) Agree
ii) Undecided
iii) Disagree
17-4-E. Our family has started celebrating “Haloween”.
i) Agree
ii) Undecided
iii) Disagree
17-4-F. Our family has started celebrating “Bon Fire”.
i) Agree
ii) Undecided
iii) Disagree
Culture - Religion
17-3. Cable television is the best source for religious information.
i) Agree
lviii
ii) Undecided
iii) Disagree
17-5-A . My religious tendency is declining these days.
i) Agree
ii) Undecided
iii) Disagree
Personal and Domestic Expenditure
18- . My expenditure on Jewelry, make-up and clothes is increasing these days.
i) Agree
ii) Undecided
iii) Disagree
18-A. Our monthly domestic budged is getting disturbed by purchase of things
introduced by cable television these days.
i) Agree
ii) Undecided
iii) Disagree
18-B. I want to be a compulsory earning hand to improve my household income.
i) Agree
ii) Undecided
iii) Disagree
Role of Pakistani Women in Society
19. Household chores and taking care of children should be equal responsibility of
man and woman.
i) Agree
ii) Undecided
iii) Disagree
19-A. It should be equal responsibility for man and woman to earn.
i) Agree
ii) Undecided
iii) Disagree
19-B. Woman should have the equal right to pursue a career like a man.
i) Agree
ii) Undecided
lix
iii) Disagree
19-C. Woman should strive / struggle for her rights.
i) Agree
ii) Undecided
iii) Disagree
19-D. Single woman should have a right to lead her life honorably.
i) Agree
ii) Undecided
iii) Disagree
19-E. Woman should have the right to decide like a man.
i) Agree
ii) Undecided
iii) Disagree
19-F. Working woman and a housewife should have same status and respect.
i) Agree
ii) Undecided
iii) Disagree
19-G. A girl should have the right to choose her life partner.
i) Agree
ii) Undecided
iii) Disagree
lx
Basic Information
Name: --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Age:
i) 18 to 25 years
ii) 26 to 30 years
iii) 31 to 35 years
iv) 36 to 40 years
Education:
i) Illiterate
ii) Primary
iii) Middle
iv) Matriculation
v) F.A / F.Sc
vi) B.A / B.Sc
vii) M.A / M.Sc
Address / Town ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Profession: ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Monthly Income:
i) 1000 – 5000
ii) 5001 – 10000
iii) 10001 – 15000
iv) 15001 – 20000
v) 20001 – 25000
vi) More than 25000
Marital Status:
i) Married
ii) Unmarried
iii) Other

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